Fire Prevention in Traditional Dwellings of Southern Hunan: A Case Study of Zhoujia Compound

Abstract

This study presents a fire risk assessment of traditional wooden dwellings in Southern Hunan, focusing on Zhoujia Compound—a nationally protected cultural heritage site. By applying Pyrosim fire simulation software, we modeled fire spread, smoke dispersion, and temperature variation under localized architectural and environmental conditions. The simulations, informed by real-time wind speed monitoring, revealed that key fire risks stem from open flame activities during festivals, charcoal heating, and inadequate electrical wiring. Structural features such as interconnected wooden beams and open courtyards exacerbate fire spread. The results identified high-risk zones and demonstrated that wind speed and building orientation significantly affect fire dynamics. Based on these findings, we propose targeted fire prevention strategies, including fire-retardant treatments, improved compartmentalization, and community-level fire education. This research offers a novel, simulation-based approach to improving fire safety in traditional villages, contributing to both cultural heritage protection and rural fire risk mitigation.

1. Introduction

Traditional villages are essential repositories of both tangible and intangible cultural heritage, providing valuable insights into the historical and cultural evolution of various regions [1,2,3,4,5]. To support rural revitalization, China has included 6819 culturally significant villages in its list of protected traditional villages, with 520,000 traditional structures—such as dwellings and temples—designated as heritage sites [6,7]. Among these structures, wood is a common building material, frequently used in key components such as beams, columns, doors, and windows. However, due to its combustibility, fire prevention is a major challenge in preserving these wooden structures [8,9] Over time, various fire prevention strategies have been developed for wooden structures [10]. However, with the improvement in living standards and the widespread use of electrical appliances, new challenges have emerged for fire prevention in traditional buildings [11]. Historical data shows that between 1997 and 2017, thousands of fires occurred in rural areas of China, causing severe loss of life and property, and leading to the destruction of many traditional villages [12]. A notable incident in 2014 in Dukezong Ancient City in Shangri-La, Yunnan, where improper use of electric heaters caused a massive fire, destroyed over 59,000 square meters of housing, and resulted in direct losses of CNY 89.83 million, highlighting the urgency of addressing fire risks in heritage sites [13,14]. As such, there is an urgent need to study and update fire prevention strategies and evaluation methods for traditional buildings in the modern context.

Common fire risk assessment methods for historic buildings include the Analytical Hierarchy Method, (AHP), Delphi-based expert elicitation, and index-based approaches. Mossa et al. introduced an index-based framework for fire risk assessment, which has been widely applied to the preservation of European cultural heritage [15]. Building on these existing frameworks, Amirhosein et al. proposed improvements for structural vulnerability assessments and fire risk evaluations of timber heritage buildings, with a focus on enhancing protection for wooden structures [16]. Gerardo et al. compiled a set of vulnerability indicators for assessing fire risks to cultural heritage and put forward 22 indicators that can be applied to evaluate the fire risk of built cultural properties [17]. Ibrahim et al. developed a survey questionnaire using the Analytical Hierarchy Method, based on the identified criteria and attributes related to fire risks for heritage buildings in Malaysia. The weights derived from their research can be utilized to evaluate the fire risk of heritage structures [18,19]. Based on the results of fire risk assessments for traditional buildings, different fire prevention strategies can be adopted for various types of structures [20]. Petrini et al. proposed a performance-based fire risk assessment format, which has significant applications for the fire management of heritage buildings [21]. In addition, researchers have suggested estimating the minimum safe distance between buildings of different structures and materials to help slow the spread of fire [22]. Addition, fire-fighting facilities such as fire-extinguishing equipment can be added to improve the building’s fire protection level [23]. For traditional wooden structures that are prone to burning, a smoke alarm system can be installed to enhance fire early warning capabilities. At the same time, the installation of electrical equipment in wooden structures should also fully consider fire prevention needs, making sure that corresponding protective facilities are installed [24,25]. For traditional buildings of different structures, materials, and uses, different models should be employed for fire safety assessments. This approach allows for the implementation of targeted fire prevention strategies to protect buildings, combining the preservation and reuse of traditional buildings to breathe new life into them.

This study focuses on the southern region of Hunan, China—an area with a rich historical legacy that is recognized as one of the country’s key regions for traditional villages. The region showcases a diverse array of vernacular architectural styles, particularly reflected in the site selection, spatial layout, and building typology. Zhoujia Compound, a representative dwelling in southern Hunan, was selected as the case study for this research, which employs PyroSim 2024.1 (Thunderhead Engineering, USA) to evaluate fire safety strategies tailored to traditional structures. This study introduces a novel approach by integrating quantitative fire risk assessments with the distinctive architectural and material characteristics of southern Hunan dwellings. In contrast to previous research—which often emphasizes structural preservation or historical documentation—this study combines fire simulation with on-site environmental monitoring, offering both theoretical insights and practical recommendations. It aims to address a critical research gap in the fire prevention strategies of heritage buildings, particularly in underrepresented rural regions with cultural significance. Compared with studies on Dong villages or Fujian Tulou that typically focus on structural forms or historical evolution, this research offers a fresh perspective by embedding real-time climatic data, localized simulation parameters, and culturally embedded uses of fire (e.g., during festivals) into its analysis. Despite the growing attention to fire safety in heritage architecture, few studies have specifically addressed the unique conditions of the southern Hunan region—characterized by timber construction, courtyard-style layouts, and fire-intensive cultural practices. In recent years, fire simulation research on traditional wooden structures has gained momentum, with increasing emphasis on early warning systems, fire risk evaluation, and fire spread behavior in historic timber buildings. For instance, Jinyi et al. applied fire simulation techniques to assess prevention and alarm systems in Chinese heritage structures such as Hualin Temple [26]. Cui and Chun combined experimental testing and numerical modeling to explore fire behavior in historic timber lounge bridges, providing valuable calibration data for CFD tools [27]. These studies underscore the expanding role of simulation in protecting culturally significant yet fire-prone wooden architecture. Building upon this foundation, the current study investigates fire dynamics in a traditional courtyard compound in southern Hunan, offering a spatial–temporal analysis of fire risk in this historically important but academically underexplored region.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

This study focuses on the southern part of Hunan Province, encompassing Yongzhou, Hengyang, and Chenzhou cities. Zhoujia Compound in Jianyan Tou Village is located in Fujiaqiao Town, Lingling District, Yongzhou City, Hunan Province, about 40 km away from the Lingling urban area. Its geographical coordinates are 24°43′15″ north latitude and 111°06′13″ east longitude, with an elevation of approximately 230 m (Figure 1). The descendants living in the Compound through generations all stem from Zhou Dunyi, the founder of Neo-Confucianism in the Song Dynasty, hence the name “Zhoujia Compound”. In this compound, Ziyang Mansion was built during the Guangxu period of the Qing Dynasty (1894–1902), with three years of material preparation and five years of construction. This Compound is the second built in the Qing Dynasty within Zhoujia Compound. On 3 May 2013, the State Council announced that Zhoujia Compound was included in the seventh batch of national key cultural heritage protection units, recognizing its significance as a major cultural and historical site.

2.2. Sample Dwellings Case Studies

2.2.1. Evaluation of Dwelling Samples

1. Building community

Zhoujia Compound, situated at the junction of plains and mountainous areas, is surrounded by the tributaries of the Xiang River and Xian Water, located in the warm temperate broadleaf forest zone with red soil. The climate features distinct seasons, with an average annual temperature ranging from 17.5 °C to 18.5 °C. The highest recorded temperature is 37.6 °C, while the lowest reaches −4 °C [28]. The frost-free period averages 285 to 329 days per year. Precipitation is abundant, with an average annual rainfall of 1360 to 1590 mm, and the rainy season spans from April to July. This area is part of China’s warm regions, featuring a climate that is mild, with short winters without severe cold and long summers without intense heat.

Covering more than 20 acres with a construction area of 11,000 square meters, this south-facing, brick–wood-structured mansion boasts a rigorous and standard layout, with exquisite decorative craftsmanship, making it a mature architectural masterpiece of Zhoujia Compound. Zhoujia Compound consists of a number of small Compounds that make up a large family compound system, in which the front hall of the central axis is mainly a large public space, while the back hall of the central axis and the Compounds on both sides are residential spaces; the rooms on the central axis are mainly north–south-orientated due to the influence of the combination of the traffic flow lines in series, and the rooms on both sides of the central axis are mainly east–west-orientated. The building plan of the Compound is a rectangular composition, with a small square (i.e., patio) inside. The layout of the monolithic building is characterized by the patio in order to improve the ventilation and lighting performance inside the building (Figure 2).

2. Building unit

The central axis of the Zhou family courtyard is similar to that of the traditional residences in southern Hunan. It is the main public activity space in the residence, and festival activities such as sacrifice and worship are carried out in this area. Units along the east–west axis are residential spaces, still inhabited by many residents who cook, use electrical appliances, and heat their homes there in their daily lives. This study focuses on two representative units, named unit 1, unit 2 and unit 3. Unit 1, located on the central axis, is a central hall Compound used primarily for festival activities, where cooking fires are also made. This area has walls and roofs partially blackened by open flames, posing a high fire risk. Additionally, this area houses the electrical meter installation, with numerous overlapping wires, and is a common route for visitors touring Zhoujia Compound. Thus, this area is chosen as a typical representative of the public building units in the Compound. Unit 2, which houses an elderly couple, involves daily activities such as cooking with fire. This living unit is equipped with appliances such as a TV, refrigerator, and heater, and relies on charcoal for heating during the winter. Its doors and windows are made of carved wood, and the windows are currently covered with plastic film to protect against the cold winter winds. Unit 3 is located on the east side of the Zhou Family Courtyard; this unit is currently occupied by a middle-aged couple. The rooms in this unit are arranged in a linear layout, with a courtyard in the middle. The courtyard is separated from the central axis by a horse-head wall and connected to other courtyards through wooden doors and a corridor. This unit consists of two larger rooms and four smaller rooms. The larger rooms primarily serve as the living room and the master bedroom, while the smaller rooms function as storage rooms, a secondary bedroom, a kitchen, and so on. The doors, windows, and walls of the room are made of wood, and the structure features wooden beams and columns. Considering that there are a large number of flammable materials in the room and open flames will be used, e.g., in the kitchen, there is a greater security risk. Therefore, this area was selected as representative of the residential units in Zhoujia Compound (Figure 3).

2.2.2. Analysis of Fire Risk Factors

1. Construction Materials

The construction materials of Zhoujia Compound primarily consist of wood and stone, with the wooden structures primarily being built using Chinese fir—a commonly used building material in China and a widely cultivated economic tree species in the southern Hunan region. According to the Chinese National Fire Protection Standards for traditional buildings (GB 50016-2014) and NFPA 914 for fire protection in historic structures, wooden materials such as Chinese fir should be treated with fire-resistant treatments to reduce the risk of rapid fire spread in these buildings [29,30]. Chinese fir has the advantages of being lightweight yet high in strength, being easy to process, having good corrosion resistance, being environmentally friendly, and having beautiful grain patterns. Similarly to most traditional Chinese architecture, traditional residences in southern Hunan, backed by abundant forest resources, primarily use wood as the material for load-bearing and enclosure structures. The durability of wood has also been essential in preserving the architectural heritage of Zhoujia Compound to this day [12]. Wood stored in the warehouse initially has a moisture content of 60%. After a period of natural drying, it becomes ‘air-dried wood,’ with a moisture content ranging from 12% to 18%. Over the years, continued drying transforms it into ‘fully dried wood,’ with a moisture content that is significantly lower than that of air-dried wood. Both ‘air-dried wood’ and ‘fully dried wood’ are highly flammable and pose a risk of severe fires [31]. Figure 4 shows the use of wooden materials in various structural components across different courtyards within Zhoujia Compound.

2. Structural Features

For the gallery section of wooden constructions, the timber structure exhibits significant structural gaps and good ventilation conditions, which, in the event of a fire, can lead to strong cross-radiation and accelerate the combustion process. The traditional residences of Zhoujia Compound mainly utilize a mortise-and-tenon timber structure for their primary load-bearing framework. Although the layered timber frames are both exquisite and robust, they also create conditions conducive to the spread and intensification of fires. Structurally, the top space of these traditional residences is composed of numerous wooden components stacked together, with roofs, walls, and other enclosing structures surrounding it [32]. During combustion, smoke and temperature tend to accumulate in this top space, making it prone to flashover events during fires, thereby increasing the difficulty of firefighting efforts. Regarding the method of component assembly, due to the combustion characteristics of wood, where combustion reactions primarily occur on the surface, the speed at which wood burns and fire spreads is directly proportional to the wood’s surface area and volume. The interlocking and overlaying of columns, beams, and purlins in the architecture of Zhoujia Compound, along with the complex shapes of these components and the presence of decorative wooden carvings, significantly increase the heat-exposed surface area of the building during combustion, leading to enhanced combustion reactions and an increased rate of burning. In terms of facade openings, ventilation, an important aspect of traditional architectural design, is often achieved through the use of corridors, lattice windows, open doors, etc., to ensure better ventilation. However, in the event of a fire, these openings provide a continuous supply of oxygen, thus facilitating a more complete and rapid combustion of the fire and its subsequent spread.

3. Daily Fire Behavior

Besides fires caused by natural factors, statistics show that most fires in traditional settlements are due to human factors, with the most prominent causes centered around the careless use of fire and electricity in residents’ daily habits. Through field research, we summarize the potential fire hazards in the daily habits of residents at the Zhou family mansion as follows:

(1)

Use of fire for daily life: During local festivals, residents cook and conduct rituals using open flames in the main house. Due to the close proximity of the use of fire to the wooden structure of the building, there are significant fire hazards, such as blackening of the walls (Figure 5). Additionally, charcoal burning is used for heating during the cold winter months; this is usually conducted inside rooms, which is a major cause of fires and casualties in local winter practices.

(2)

Electrical equipment: In recent years, the number of fires traced back to the improper use of electrical equipment and disorderly cable wiring has been increasing. This rise is partly due to improved living standards, which have led to a significant increase in the use of electrical appliances. However, residents are not sufficiently familiar with the proper use of electrical equipment and lack the necessary fire safety awareness, which increases the likelihood of fire incidents caused by behaviors such as overloading power strips, using substandard wiring, or leaving appliances running unattended. Moreover, the initial design of Zhoujia Compound did not consider proper electrical wiring, resulting in common issues of improper wiring installations, which are often laid directly along flammable wooden structures and exposed, posing a severe fire risk once ignition occurs (Figure 5).

(3)

Tourist behavior: Zhoujia Compound is a well-known local tourist attraction, and although the touring area has no-smoking signs, these are not managed effectively. Therefore, smoking and other fire-related behaviors are observed within the area, posing a fire risk to the predominantly wooden structures, especially during the dry periods of summer and winter.

2.3. Wind Speed Monitoring

To accurately assess the influence of wind on fire propagation within Zhoujia Compound, we conducted a week-long field survey in January 2024. Using the Testo 425 handheld automatic detector, we strategically deployed the device at multiple monitoring points across the village and its surrounding open areas to capture real-time wind data. Different architectural units, depending on their positioning, compound size, form of enclosure, and orientation, exhibited varying wind speeds. The data collected from two selected units, whose measurement locations are shown in Figure 6, were cross-referenced with historical meteorological records from the nearest weather station to ensure consistency. Furthermore, to standardize our approach and minimize external influence on wind patterns, we utilized the guidelines provided in the National Building Climate Design Code (GB 50176-2016), ensuring that the wind speed ranges used in the simulations were representative of the local environmental conditions [33].

2.4. Fire Source Power and Simulation Parameters

For the fire simulations conducted within Zhoujia Compound, key parameters at both the community and individual building levels were standardized based on the results of field surveys and the monitoring data from nearby meteorological stations. These parameters followed the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards and ISO 9001 guidelines for fire safety in heritage buildings. The average annual temperature of Zhoujia Compound was recorded at 17.5 °C, with prevailing winds from the north and northeast. The average wind speed recorded at nearby meteorological stations was 2.21 m/s, which was used as a basis for simulating wind-driven fire propagation.

To ensure the simulated fire behavior was realistic, the fire source power was set at 6 MW, a standard value derived from typical fire load densities for wooden buildings in the region. The fire load density was calculated following established fire safety protocols, with the resulting value of 410 MJ/m² reflecting local conditions and practices, particularly those involving open flames during festivals and heating activities. The fire source power setting was calibrated to align with regional fire behavior patterns, considering the combustible materials in the dwellings, such as Chinese fir wood, and the typical heating practices. This methodology ensured that the simulated fire spread and smoke dispersion accurately represented the risks in traditional timber structures.

1. Simulation Model

Using the field survey and mapping data, a village model of Zhoujia Compound was created in SketchUp. This model was subsequently imported into Pyrosim in DXF format to develop a fire simulation model for the individual building units. Three typical building units were selected as simulation objects, and they were divided into unit 1, unit 2 and unit 3. The building area of unit 1 was 152.9 m²; unit 2’s area was 162.2 m², and unit 3 had an area of 146.8 m². These units were defined as scenario 1, scenario 2, and scenario 3.

2. Grid Settings

Due to the specific nature of the Pyrosim simulation software, setting the grid size is crucial as it impacts both accuracy and efficiency. According to the Pyrosim user manual, the grid cell size was set to 0.25 m × 0.25 m × 0.25 m, with an empirical value of δ_x and a characteristic flame diameter ratio D* of 0.126, aligning with the optimal range. The relationship for δ_x is given in Equation (1), and that for D* is given in Equation (2).

$${\delta }_x=\sqrt[3]{x\ast y\ast z}$$

(1)

where x, y, and z represent the dimensions of the cell grid along the respective axes.

$$D^{*}={\left({\displaystyle \frac{Q^{*}}{{\rho }_{\infty }{c}_p{T}_{\infty }\sqrt{g}}}\right)}^{{\displaystyle \frac{2}{5}}}$$

(2)

where Q* denotes the heat release rate(kW); ρ_∞ is the air density (1.2 kg/m³); c_p is the specific heat capacity of air (1 KJ/(kg·K)); T_∞ is the ambient air temperature (293.15 K); and g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s²).

Based on the recommended resolution of 0.25 m × 0.25 m × 0.25 m from the Pyrosim manual, we adopted this setting in all simulation scenarios to better capture the thermal and smoke behavior in traditional wooden structures. This decision was based on a comprehensive consideration of simulation scale, computational efficiency, and the resolution required to accurately capture the fire development process within the traditional wooden structures. The simulation domains for the three units were as follows: the unit 1 simulation was determined to be 152.9 m² × 5 m, total 764.5 m³, with 48,928 grids in total, the unit 2 simulation was determined to be 162.2 m² × 7 m, total 1135.4 m³, with 72,666 grids in total, and the unit 3 simulation was determined to be 146.8 m² × 7.2 m, total 1057 m³, with 67,645 grids in total.

3. Parameter Settings

To simulate fire behavior in Zhoujia Compound, the key fire source and environmental parameters were set as shown in

Table 1. Fire source and simulation environment parameters.

Parameter	Value	Unit
Fire source dimensions	0.2 × 0.5	m
Heat release rate	6	MW
Fire growth model	t2 (rapid)	—
Fire development coefficient	0.0469	kW/s2
Simulation duration	1200	s
Ambient temperature	17.5	°C
Relative humidity	40	%
Simulated wind speed	2.21	m/s

. The fire source dimensions were set to 0.2 m × 0.5 m, based on typical ignition areas observed in real-life scenarios, such as charcoal heating pits and open flame stoves, that are commonly found in traditional dwellings. This size was selected to realistically simulate the ignition behavior and early fire development in wooden interiors. A t² fire growth model was adopted, assuming rapid growth based on the type and location of combustible materials, with a development coefficient of 0.0469 kW/s². The simulation duration was set to 1200 s. According to building smoke management standards, the heat release rate was set at 6 MW. Environmental parameters included an ambient temperature of 17.5 °C and a relative humidity of 40%. The simulated wind speed of 2.21 m/s was based on field data from Zhoujia Compound and nearby meteorological stations.

Table 2. Combustion parameters for building unit simulation.

Scenario	Cell Area	Fire Power	Grid Size	Number of Grids	Simulated Wind Direction	Simulated Wind Speed	Simulated Burning Time
1	152.9	6 MW	0.25 m × 0.25 m × 0.25 m	48,928	Positive north wind	2.21 m/s	1200 s
2	162.2	6 MW	0.25 m × 0.25 m × 0.25 m	72,666	Positive north wind	2.21 m/s	1200 s
3	146.8	6 MW	0.25 m × 0.25 m × 0.25 m	67,645	Positive north wind	2.21 m/s	1200 s

presents the combustion simulation parameters for each building unit, while

Table 3. Material properties of the building monolith model.

Object	Surface Material	Density (kg/m3)	Specific Heat Capacity (Kj/kg-K)	Thermal Conductivity (W/m-K)	Thermal Storage Coefficient (W/m2-K)
Beds	Foam	40	1,04	0.05	0.54
Framing	Cedarwood	570	1.7	0.16	155.04
Internal partitions	Cedarwood	550	1.65	0.14	127.05

lists the thermal and physical properties of the materials used in the model. In this simulation, the specific composition of combustion by-products was not considered.

The fixed fire load density of the building unit model was calculated using Equation (3) [34]:

$$q={\displaystyle \frac{\sum M·∆h_c}{A_t}}$$

(3)

where q is the fire load density (MJ/m²), M is the mass of a single combustible (kg), Δh_c is its effective calorific value (MJ/kg), and A_t is the area of the ground in the room on fire (m²).

The final calculated fire load density was 410 MJ/m². However, since the model was simplified, the combustibles considered were primarily spongy sofas and wooden enclosures, which differ from those typically found in a residential setting. As a result, the model’s accuracy has some limitations.

Flashover occurs after the initial phase of a fire and is a dangerous phenomenon where a localized fire quickly escalates into a fully developed blaze. Once this transition is complete, all combustible surfaces in the room ignite simultaneously. To assess the likelihood of flashover in a building, the critical heat release rate at ignition can be calculated using the Thomas model, as shown in Equation (4). Based on this calculation, it was determined that the residential building would not experience a flashover.

$$Q_c=7.8A_r+378A_0\sqrt{H_0}$$

(4)

where Q_c is the minimum heat release rate (kW), A_r is the area of the opening (m²), A₀ is the difference between the area inside the room and the area of the opening (m²), and H₀ is the height of the opening (m).

2.5. Dwellings’ Fire Validation

The simulation research and analysis of PyroSim fire simulation software can be divided into the following four steps (Figure 7).

3. Results

3.1. Measurement Results

3.1.1. Building Community Measurement Results

The layout of Zhoujia Compound is rigorous and standardized. Its plane is rectangular, being long in the east–west direction, with a width of 120 m, and short in the north–south direction, with a depth of 100 m, reflecting the traditional design of large residential complexes in China. The layout of the main house has four sections; the east side contains three rows of twelve horizontal houses; and the west side contains two rows of eight horizontal houses and gardens. There is a rectangular flat of more than 200 square meters between the main house gate and the floodwall gate, paved with pebbles. The flat east and west sides each contain a row of “inverted” crosses of house, leading to the gate and forming a “concave” pattern. The whole Compound is symmetrical upon the axis, and the transverse house takes the main house as the core, echoing the center and forming a “circumference” layout of varying lines, reflecting the remarkable characteristics of symmetry, balance, center, and harmony. This configuration highlights the principles of spatial hierarchy and functional zoning inherent in Chinese architecture.

The buildings in Zhoujia Compound have an obvious central axis, which is the main public activity space of the whole building, and the usual festival activities and tourism activities are held in this space. The central axis of the Compound has four steps and each step has a patio, which provides the main source of lighting and ventilation for the building. The main shaft line is separated from the surrounding Compound by a horsehead wall, which is connected by a wooden door. Horsehead walls serve as fire-dividing walls in traditional residential Compound buildings. The composition of the Compounds on the east and west sides of Zhoujia Compound is similar to the central axis, forming Compound-style residences. At present, all the rooms in Zhoujia Compound are inhabited and used by residents.

3.1.2. Building Unit Measurement Results

We measured unit 1, unit 2, and unit 3; the measurement results showed that the area of unit 1 was 381.4 m², that of unit 2 was 241.1 m², and that of unit 3 was 287.6 m². The building area of unit 1 is 152.9 m², that of unit 2 is 162.2 m², and that of unit 3 is 146.8 m². Unit 1 serves as the lower courtyard on the main axis. It consists of four rooms, with passageways on both sides and a gatehouse directly ahead. On each side of the corridor, there are symmetrically distributed suites composed of four rooms, with each suite having an area of 66.1 m². Unit 2 is located on the west side of the Zhou Family Courtyard, as the first courtyard in the second row on the west side. It adopts a courtyard-style layout, with the courtyard located in front of the residential buildings. A corridor runs through the middle of the courtyard, with rooms on either side of the corridor. The central corridor leads to the central axis and the second courtyard. The four main rooms in this unit, used for daily living, have the following respective areas: 17.1 m², 16.3 m², 22.4 m², and 17.5 m². The rooms are connected by corridors. Unit 3 is located on the east side of the Zhou Family Courtyard, as the first courtyard in the fourth row on the east side. In the center of the courtyard is a skylight, which effectively improves the lighting within the unit. The rooms in this unit are arranged parallel to the skylight, with a total of six rooms, including two larger, well-ventilated rooms and four smaller rooms. The corridor is located on the left side of the courtyard, with one side consisting of a stone wall and the other side of wooden structures. The corridor leads to the central axis and the second courtyard. The six main rooms in this unit, used for daily living, have the following respective areas: 16.8 m², 17.6 m²,40 m², 34.1 m², 18.9 m², and 19.7 m². The rooms are arranged in a linear layout.

3.2. Monitoring Results

3.2.1. Building Community Wind Speed

Figure 8 presents the wind speed monitoring results for Zhoujia Compound. Additionally, data from the nearest meteorological station to Jianyantou Village were extracted for comparison. The maximum, minimum, and average wind speeds at the Zhoujia Compound monitoring point were 3.31 m/s, 0.32 m/s, and 1.81 m/s, respectively, while the corresponding values from the meteorological station in Fujiaqiao Town were 3.37 m/s, 0.4 m/s, and 1.95 m/s. The wind speeds at Zhoujia Compound were generally lower than those recorded at the nearest meteorological station, with smaller fluctuations observed in the local wind speed. These findings suggest that the local wind speed in Zhoujia Compound was reduced due to the strategic location and layout of the building. The stable wind environment, indicated by low fluctuations, implies that Zhoujia Compound benefits from more controlled conditions, which could help slow the spread of fire.

3.2.2. Building Unit Wind Speed

Figure 8 shows the wind speed of the three building units selected in the study. The wind speed of unit 1 is 1.51 m/s, the wind speed of unit 2 is 1.48 m/s, and the wind speed of unit 3 is 1.41 m/s. From the data, it can be seen that the wind speed in unit 1 is relatively high, mainly because it is located on the central axis. As a result, the wind speed is slightly higher compared to the other two units. The wind speed in unit 3 is slightly higher than that in unit 2, primarily because unit 3 is more aligned with the prevailing wind direction during winter in the area. According to the data, the unit located on the central axis has the highest wind speed, while the unit on the west side has the lowest wind speed, which is mainly influenced by the winter wind direction in the area. Lower wind speeds are more favorable for preventing the spread of fire and better protect the building.

3.3. Simulation Results

On the basis of field research, we chose unit 1, unit 2, and unit 3 as typical units for simulation research in Zhoujia Compound. Figure 9, Figure 10 and Figure 11 present the fire simulation results, temperature distribution, and smoke dispersion outcomes from the Pyrosim simulation at the unit level.

In Figure 9, the fire development trend in unit 1 can be observed. At 100 s, open flames began to appear at the ignition point, producing smoke, and the temperature started to rise. By 200 s, the fire spread from the ignition point room to the room opposite, following the smoke, leading to the appearance of open flames in the room on the opposite side of the corridor within the unit. By 400 s, under the influence of wind and the burning of the wooden beams supporting the roof, the fire spread along the beams throughout the entire unit, with smoke further covering the unit and tending to spread to surrounding rooms. At 600 s, the fire continued to spread along the corridor towards the rear courtyard, with the temperature at the center of the fire reaching nearly 900 °C, and smoke spreading to the adjacent unit. By 800 s, the fire, driven by the wind, spread to the adjacent unit, causing it to catch fire, with the fire’s center expanding further. At 1200 s, the fire in the adjacent unit intensified, leading to a significant rise in temperature throughout the unit, with smoke covering the two adjacent units and the fire becoming increasingly uncontrollable.

Figure 10 shows the results for unit 2: at 100 s, the temperature at the ignition point began to rise, accompanied by a noticeable appearance of smoke, which exhibited a tendency to spread to the surrounding areas. At 200 s, a flashover occurred at the ignition point, with the temperature reaching 600 degrees Celsius. The fire intensified significantly and entered a rapid development stage. Concurrently, a large amount of dense smoke was produced, spreading to the unit surrounding the ignition point. Between 200 and 400 s, the fire rapidly spread to the surrounding units. In the figure, it is evident that the fire intensified and extended to the adjacent rooms, while the temperature at the central point continued to rise. At 600 s, the fire had spread to all units of the courtyard, producing a large amount of smoke. The fire had developed from the initial ignition point to encompass the entire courtyard, resulting in open flames and substantial smoke production. Multiple combustion points emerged, with temperatures at several points reaching up to 900 degrees Celsius. As the fire continued to develop, by 800 s, the temperature consistently rose, and the high-temperature smoke generated by the combustion began to disperse, igniting flammable materials in adjacent courtyards and causing the fire to spread towards the central courtyard. The courtyards are interconnected by wooden doors, which are typically left open. The sustained high temperatures caused these wooden doors to catch fire, further facilitating the spread of the fire to other courtyards, and ultimately increasing the burned area. If measures are not promptly taken to prevent the spread of the fire, over time, the fire will eventually engulf the entire simulated area, resulting in irreparable damage.

For the fire spread in unit 3 (Figure 11a), the origin reached ignition within 100 s. With sufficient oxygen, the fire spread, and smoke was generated as indoor textiles combusted. Typically, 1 kg of wood produces about 20 m³ of smoke upon burning. Smoke dispersion in wooden frame dwellings was analyzed based on the area of spread and smoke height from the ground. In addition to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, the combustion of indoor textiles and plastic products also releases toxic and harmful gases, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and benzene. Figure 11c displays temperature slices from the floor. A significant temperature change of nearly 360 °C was observed after ignition, particularly at the bed between the fire pits at 100 s. By 200 s, most of the bed was completely burned, indicating that combustion had ceased. At this point, flames between the charcoal pots were concentrated near the window, with sufficient oxygen, and the fire began spreading from the wooden structure to adjacent rooms. The temperature at the ignition point continued to rise, eventually reaching a flashover temperature of approximately 600 °C. At the 400 s, the progression of the fire led to the combustion of the wooden partition, resulting in substantial open flames. Due to the wooden partition not being completely sealed and having perforations, smoke spread to another bedroom to the north and also penetrated the wooden exterior wall, spreading towards the courtyard. The temperature at the combustion center reached approximately 800 degrees Celsius. Concurrently, with the spread of high-temperature particulates carried by the smoke, the temperature in the northern bedroom also increased. At 600 s, the fire spread along the wooden partition walls to the northern bedroom and storage room. All the houses within the courtyard were engulfed in flames and covered with thick smoke. The high-temperature smoke, driven by air currents, spread to other courtyards. The temperature of the burning houses reached as high as 800–900 °C. Due to the influence of high-temperature smoke particles, the temperature of the unburned areas also began to rise sharply. At 800 s, the fire spread to other courtyards, causing the rooms in these courtyards to catch fire as well. Simultaneously, the high-temperature smoke spread towards the main hall along the central axis. It can be observed that the temperature in the courtyards near the central axis reached as high as 800–900 °C. By 1200 s, the fire had caused the entire courtyard to be engulfed in flames and spread through the doorways in the horsehead walls to the northern courtyard. Due to the dispersal of high-temperature smoke into the main hall along the central axis, the area of the hall near the burning courtyard also caught fire. It can be observed in the figure that the smoke rapidly spread around the ignition points, accompanied by high temperatures generated by the burning. Multiple courtyards experienced temperatures exceeding 900 °C. The spread of the fire was partially hindered by the horsehead walls, leading to a slower spread in some areas, while in other areas, the fire spread rapidly and became difficult to control.

Figure 12 presents a slice of the CO concentration at a height of 1.4 m. Carbon monoxide, a combustion byproduct, enters the bloodstream through the lungs and binds with hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin, causing hypoxia and brain damage. Specifically, at 100 s, CO concentration near the fire source increased. At 200 s, the CO concentration in all three units began to rise, with the central point-based concentration of CO in unit 2 increasing rapidly, reaching 9 × 10⁻³ mol/mol. At 400 s, the CO concentration at the central points of all three units reached 9 mol, and significant diffusion occurred in each. In unit 1, due to the relatively open surroundings, CO spread outwards in all directions. In unit 2, there was a tendency for CO to spread towards the room on the south side, while in unit 3, CO tended to spread towards the north side. At 600 s, there was a large-scale spread of CO. In unit 1, hindered by the gable wall, the spread mainly followed the central axis, extending in the north–south direction. In unit 2, CO spread throughout the entire courtyard, showing a tendency to spread along the central axis, with multiple points reaching CO concentrations of about 9 × 10⁻³ mol. The spread in unit 3 was slower. At 600 s, the spread of CO in unit 1 was still hindered by the gable wall, resulting in a slower diffusion, while the spread of CO in unit 2 was much more rapid, extending throughout the entire courtyard and spreading along the central axis, with multiple points reaching a CO concentration of 9 × 10⁻³. Meanwhile, the CO in unit 3 continued to spread to the surrounding buildings. At 1200 s, the CO in unit 1 finally spread to the room north of the ignition point, causing an increase in CO concentration in the northern room without significant spreading to the left or right. In unit 2, CO spread throughout the entire simulation area, with many regions reaching a concentration of 9. In unit 3, CO primarily spread within the courtyard, causing an increase in CO concentration there and resulting in localized diffusion. This pattern is consistent with the fire development and delay spread trends of the three units. The variation in spreading could be influenced by wind speed and the presence of the gable wall. Notably, the peak CO concentrations observed around 400–600 s reached approximately 9 × 10⁻³ mol/mol (about 9000 ppm), significantly exceeding the commonly recognized lethal threshold of 1200 ppm. This indicates that untenable smoke conditions may arise within 6–10 min of ignition, which is critical for evacuation planning in similar structures. Moreover, CO spread from unit 1 to unit 2 was evident by 200–400 s, and further propagation to unit 3 occurred between 600 and 1200 s. These time nodes reflect the spatial delay caused by the presence of horse-head walls and can serve as key references for evaluating compartment effectiveness in traditional courtyard layouts.

4. Discussion

4.1. Fire Risk Assessment

Traditional folk houses in southern Hunan are predominantly made of wood, making them highly susceptible to fire, which presents a significant threat to their survival. However, many of these houses have endured for thousands of years, owing to their traditional methods of construction and adaptation. This study aims to analyze the spread of fire in Zhoujia Compound to evaluate the effectiveness and potential shortcomings of traditional folk houses in southern Hunan when confronted with fire risks.

The fire spread was influenced by various factors, including the ignition point, wind speed, and the combustible nature of the materials in the building. From a fire safety engineering perspective, wind acts as a critical ventilation driver, accelerating heat transfer and flame spread along connected wooden corridors. The use of flammable materials further reduces flashover time, intensifying the overall hazard. The fire progressed rapidly from the ignition point to the surrounding rooms, with the highest temperature reaching nearly 900 °C. Our simulation results align with similar findings from Zhang, where the fire spread was influenced by wind speed and material properties. However, our results indicate a faster spread compared to Zhang, who observed slower fire progression due to the denser materials (e.g., concrete) used in their study. In contrast, the wooden structures in our study, particularly Chinese fir, which has a lower ignition point, contributed to the faster spread of fire. Furthermore, the wind speed in our study was 2.21 m/s, compared to 1.5 m/s in Zhang, contributing to more rapid fire spread in our simulation. These discrepancies highlight the role of local environmental factors (such as wind speed) and specific building materials (like Chinese fir) in affecting fire dynamics in traditional wooden structures [35].

According to the simulation results, for the Zhou Family Courtyard complex, the fire risk stems from the use of open flames during festive activities, especially during the dry winter season. The ignition point tends to occur in the central courtyard area, leading to the burning of wooden structural beams, columns, and walls, thus triggering a fire. As a traditional residential structure, the Zhou Family Courtyard inherits the use of horsehead walls to partition the complex into different zones for fire prevention. These walls, made of brick and stone, stand taller than the building walls, effectively containing the spread of fire around the ignition point. In fire safety terms, horsehead walls function as passive fire barriers, contributing to compartmentation by segmenting building zones and limiting lateral flame travel. However, since the central courtyard is positioned along the central axis of the complex and features structures like archways and corridors connecting different zones, which are all constructed with wood, it facilitates the spread of fire. To effectively halt the fire’s progression and prevent vertical spread, it is necessary to consider establishing vertical fire zones to impede the fire. Additionally, wind direction significantly impacts the spread of fires.

For individual courtyards, the primary cause of fire incidents lies in everyday activities involving the use of fire. According to residents of the Zhou Family Courtyard, two vacant courtyards within the complex have experienced fires. These fires were ignited by attempts to stay warm during winter, leading to the ignition of combustible materials within rooms and subsequent fires. The fires resulted in the destruction of two courtyards on the west side, but were promptly extinguished, resulting in no casualties or further spread throughout the entire complex. The simulation results indicate that unit 1, with its wooden structure and connecting corridors, is prone to fire spread and can affect other units. Unit 2 and unit 3, currently occupied by residents, require open flames for cooking and heating, in addition to facing electrical issues. The courtyard is relatively enclosed, with all structures made of wood and separated by wooden partitions, thus facilitating fire spread. To effectively prevent fire spread, particularly within wooden structures and especially the wooden partitions, fireproofing measures should be implemented to enhance fire resistance and effectively address fire incidents.

In addition to the above fire-causing factors, the primary fire risk also arises from residents’ use of electricity and fire. The interiors of the buildings in which residents use charcoal for heating tend to be relatively enclosed, increasing the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning. Additionally, due to the small size of the rooms in the unit, one room often serves multiple purposes, such as a living room, bedroom, and dining room, and is often inhabited by elderly residents, leading to a high density of items inside such rooms. When using charcoal for heating, the sparks from the charcoal can easily ignite nearby flammable materials such as blankets, posing a significant threat to the safety of occupants. To improve fire safety in individual buildings, emphasis should be placed on increasing fire awareness through training. Rooms should not be sealed off without ventilation, fire safety equipment such as fire extinguishers should be provided, and residents should be trained in their use. Enhancing residents’ awareness of fire safety and their ability to respond to fires is essential.

According to the simulation results, the spread of fire is influenced by the ignition point and wind speed. Wind can cause fire to spread from the point of ignition to other rooms or even other units. Since traditional buildings in southern Hunan are constructed with a combination of wood and brick, firewalls (horsehead walls) are installed between east–west units for fire prevention, effectively preventing the fire from spreading throughout the entire structure. The simulation results show that fire initially spreads rapidly within the unit of origin due to the flammable wooden structures and poor internal compartmentation. However, the presence of horse-head walls between adjacent units effectively delayed the lateral fire spread, especially in units 2 and 3. Additionally, areas such as kitchens and heating rooms, where open flames or charcoal are used, exhibited significantly higher temperatures and faster smoke accumulation. These findings highlight the critical importance of both structural firebreaks and targeted fireproofing measures in high-risk zones. To further illustrate the differences in fire dynamics across units,

Table 4. Fire spread time, temperature, and CO levels across units.

Metric	Unit 1	Unit 2	Unit 3
Initial CO increase (s)	100	200	200
CO peak concentration (mol/mol)	≈9 × 10−3	≈9 × 10−3	≈9 × 10−3
Time to reach 9 × 10−3 mol/mol CO	400	400	600
Cross-unit CO spread start (s)	N/A	200	600
Cross-unit CO spread complete (s)	1200	600	1200
Max temperature (°C)	≈900	≈900	<900
Relative smoke spread speed	High	Very High	Moderate
Notable fire spread resistance	Slowed by gable wall	None	Slight delay from gable wall

summarizes key indicators such as fire spread time, peak temperature, and CO concentration levels. It is important to note that the conclusion regarding the fire-blocking role of horse-head walls is based on the observed delay in fire and smoke spread patterns across units. However, controlled simulations comparing scenarios with and without horse-head walls were not conducted in this study. As such, a quantitative assessment of their actual fireproofing efficiency remains a subject for future investigation. This limitation has been acknowledged, and future studies will focus on quantifying how much such structures can delay lateral fire spread and mitigate thermal transfer. Therefore, it is necessary to study fire prevention strategies for traditional southern Hunan residential buildings like the Zhou Family Courtyard, as this could effectively prevent and curb the occurrence and spread of fires, thus protecting cultural heritage and ensuring the safety of residents and their property.

Although large-scale fire event data for traditional villages in southern Hunan are limited, a real incident in 2020 in Liuzijie Historical Street (Yongzhou, Hunan, China) highlights the fire vulnerability of timber structures. According to official reports, the fire was likely caused by an electrical fault resulting from aging wiring, which ignited nearby combustible materials and destroyed four rooms, burning approximately 80 square meters of a traditional wooden building before it was contained. While the fire did not spread to adjacent structures due to timely suppression, it validates the high ignition risk and spread potential simulated in our study—particularly the role of indoor heating, electrical hazards, and the flammability of wooden elements. This incident supports the simulation outcomes and underlines the urgent need for preventive strategies in such heritage environments. However, it is important to acknowledge that this study primarily focused on the spatial dynamics of fire spread and risk zoning, and did not include quantitative occupant safety indicators such as smoke layer height, heat flux, visibility, and time to untenable conditions. Additionally, the fire load density was fixed at 410 MJ/m², without accounting for variations during festivals, when temporary combustibles such as ceremonial paper and textiles may increase fire risk. Although a full sensitivity analysis (+5% or +10% fire load) was not conducted due to time and resource constraints, this limitation has been noted. Future work will incorporate these parameters and conduct multi-scenario simulations to improve the assessment of occupant safety and enhance the comprehensiveness of fire risk modeling in traditional wooden environments. Furthermore, the wind speed data used in this study were collected only during one week in January 2024, reflecting typical winter fire conditions characterized by low humidity and northerly winds. However, in the south Hunan region, summer also presents a significant fire risk, with higher temperatures, southerly winds, and the potential influence of typhoon-induced airflow. These seasonal differences can significantly impact fire spread dynamics. This limitation has been acknowledged, and future studies will incorporate wind field data from the summer season (June–August) to more comprehensively evaluate the seasonal variability of fire behavior in traditional dwellings.

4.2. Fire Prevention Strategy

Zhoujia Compound is a representative example of traditional folk houses in southern Hunan. In this study, Zhoujia Compound is used to highlight the common issues faced by these dwellings, and the findings and the study recommendations can be applied to other traditional folk houses in the region. Through field monitoring and simulation data, we identified key problems prevalent in most traditional folk houses in southern Hunan.

• The village is situated in a remote mountainous area, and the site of southern Hunan folk houses was selected after considering various factors. However, in the current modern society, the remote location of such villages can result in delayed response times for fire trucks, which could exacerbate fire risks. In rural areas, fire protection mainly relies on village residents forming fire prevention teams. However, their firefighting capabilities still lag behind those of professional firefighters. Therefore, there are significant deficiencies in extinguishing open flames and raising awareness about how to protect buildings in the event of a fire.
• The main construction material is wood, and traditional folk houses in southern Hunan follow historical practices, with load-bearing frames and structural elements being made from this highly flammable material. This reliance on wood is a fundamental issue when it comes to fire prevention in these buildings.
• Due to local festival celebrations, cooking activities with open fires are conducted inside the hall. The previous survey photos show that some wooden walls and structures have already been blackened by smoke, indicating significant fire hazards due to the use of fire in these areas. In addition, the winter season, characterized by dry conditions, is prone to fires. Residents in this area have a habit of burning materials such as charcoal for heating, which also poses a significant fire safety risk during the winter season.

Zhou Family Courtyard, a traditional residential building in the South Hunan region, employs a courtyard-style layout typical of siheyuan (quadrangles), with different functional rooms distributed around the courtyard. This layout not only facilitates fire prevention but also promotes ventilation and lighting. Additionally, the use of horse-head walls serves to block the spread of fire. The application of traditional fire prevention strategies can effectively impede the occurrence and spread of fires.

However, with the advancement of the times, residents’ increased use of electrical appliances, and the evolution of houses from having solely residential functions to forming a combination of residential areas and tourist attractions, the fire prevention measures need to be updated. In the current situation, the majority of residents in these traditional homes are elderly, with very few young residents. Their ability to prevent fires and respond to emergencies needs improvement. Based on the conclusions of our model simulation, we believe the following areas can be enhanced to improve the overall fire prevention capability of Zhou Family Courtyard:

With advancements in social and scientific progress, new fire prevention measures may emerge. However, based on the current research, the following recommendations are proposed for local dwellings. These are grounded in the findings of this study, considering the local environment, economic factors, and the need to preserve the unique architectural culture of traditional folk houses in southern Hunan:

• Architectural Composition and Fire Isolation: Traditional buildings are often isolated through the use of plazas or wide streets to reduce the risk of fire spread. Partition walls could be used to divide large interior spaces into smaller units to limit the spread of fire.
• Selection of Non-Flammable Materials: non-combustible materials such as stone and adobe should be used in the construction of walls, floors, and roofs. Tiles should be used as a roofing material instead of flammable thatch to reduce the risk of fire.
• Construction Technology: The thickness of the wall can effectively prevent the spread of fire. The design of a reasonable ventilation system can not only effectively use the natural wind to reduce the indoor temperature, but can also improve smoke discharge in the case of fire.
• Water Source Allocation: Wells or pools can be set up in villages or groups of buildings so that water can be quickly collected and used to put out fires. Areas prone to fire should be equipped with simple fire equipment, such as buckets and sandbags.
• Community Management: In some traditional communities, there is a simple alarm system to quickly warn residents in the event of a fire. Basic fire codes should also be developed, such as prohibiting the use of open flames in high-risk areas.

In addition to the above technical and community-level strategies, it is also important to consider the preservation of cultural authenticity. The simulation results indicate that horse-head walls effectively delayed lateral fire spread, especially in units 2 and 3, underscoring their importance as structural firebreaks. High-risk areas such as kitchens and heating rooms, located near wooden partitions and courtyards, exhibited higher temperatures and greater smoke accumulation. Based on these findings, we recommend reinforcing horse-head walls and applying fire-retardant coatings to wooden interiors in kitchens, heating rooms, and corridors. To minimize visual and structural interference in heritage environments, fireproof bricks that visually match traditional blue bricks can be selectively used for partial wall reinforcement in high-risk areas. Wireless smoke detectors should be installed using concealed brackets fixed under beams, avoiding damage to wooden structures and eliminating the need for invasive wiring. Furthermore, given the rapid CO accumulation observed in the simulation results (especially in units 2 and 3), we recommend installing carbon monoxide concentration monitors in core passageways and main halls to support early warning and evacuation. These targeted measures can effectively reduce fire spread while preserving the architectural integrity of Zhoujia Compound. Any use of non-flammable materials is intended only for new partitions or repair work and should follow conservation principles such as reversibility and minimal intervention, ensuring that the cultural and historical value of the traditional structures remains intact.

The Zhou Family Courtyard is a representative example of traditional residential buildings in the South Hunan region. Research on fire prevention in these buildings not only aids in the preservation of cultural heritage but also effectively ensures the safety of residents. Based on the research findings, scientific and reasonable fire prevention measures and emergency plans can be proposed for traditional residences and their modernization, ensuring that residents can respond quickly and effectively in the event of a fire. Additionally, the research results have significant practical reference value for the fire protection of traditional wooden structures.

5. Conclusions

This study assessed the fire risks and prevention strategies in Zhoujia Compound using Pyrosim fire simulation software. The simulations revealed that the primary factors influencing fire behavior include architectural features, daily practices, and environmental conditions. Key findings are as follows:

• High Fire Vulnerability of Wooden Structures: Zhoujia Compound, primarily made of timber, is highly susceptible to rapid fire spread once ignition occurs. Simulations showed that densely arranged rooms and shared wooden walls significantly reduce the time to flashover.
• Fire Risks from Daily Activities: Daily practices, such as open-flame cooking, charcoal heating, and improper electrical use, were identified as major fire hazards. The lack of spatial separation between fire sources and combustibles accelerates fire spread.
• Environmental Impact: Climatic factors, particularly wind speed (2.21 m/s), and the building’s layout, including courtyards and open spaces, facilitate rapid fire spread across adjacent units.
• Simulation-Identified High-Risk Zones: The simulation identified high-risk areas like open kitchens, interior wooden staircases, and bedrooms adjacent to worship altars. These zones require targeted fire prevention measures.
• Recommendations: To mitigate fire risks, we propose fire-retardant treatments for wooden surfaces, vertical fire compartmentalization, and the installation of smoke detectors and fire alarms. Additionally, improving electrical systems and providing fire safety education for residents is essential.

In conclusion, fire prevention in traditional wooden dwellings requires integrating fire risk assessments, simulation techniques, and modern safety measures. The study’s findings provide valuable insights into protecting cultural heritage while ensuring the safety of residents.