Prehistoric Astronomical Observatories and Paleoclimatic Records in Bulgaria Estimate Astroclimate during 4000–4500 BCE: A Critical Assessment
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Geographical, Climatic and Socio-Cultural Preconditions for the Appearance of Astronomical Observation Facilities in Prehistory
3. Ancient Astronomical Observatories in Bulgaria (Horizon and Meridional Astronomy)
3.1. Methodology of Archaeoastronomical Investigations
3.1.1. Methodology for the Detection and Study of Structural Orientations in Rock-Cut Monuments (Method of “Horizon” Astronomy)
3.1.2. Methodology for the Detection and Study of Light and Shadow Effects in Rock-Cut Monuments (Method of Meridional Culminations)
- Astronomical azimuth of the object (A—most often this is the main axis of the facility (the cave) or other auxiliary directions);
- Latitude (φ—interpolated by map or accurate GPS);
- Height of the Sun (h—from the characteristic “receiving markers”; dimensions and orientation of the projection opening are also needed.
4. Paleoclimate
- -
- -
- Dendrochronology: the study of tree ring growth;
- -
- Pollen Distribution: the study of plant types during the relevant climatic era and the distribution of pollen found in sediments, ice, rocks, caves, etc.;
- -
- Study of lake sediments (Lake Varves): (like dendrochronology, but with lake sediments-a varve is an annual layer of mud in the sediment);
- -
- Coral Bed Rings;
- -
- Fossils in different geological and historical layers: studies of geological settings, etc. [34];
- -
- Historical documents and artifacts that testify to the emergence and development of civilizations, etc.
4.1. Data from Cave Speleothems
4.2. Paleogeological and Pollen Data
5. Astroclimate
- -
- The purity and transparency of the atmosphere;
- -
- The light pollution of the natural environment;
- -
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Years | 5000 BCE | 4000 BCE | 3000 BCE | 2000 BCE | 1000 BCE | CE 1/1 BCE | 1000 CE | 2000 CE |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ε | 24.15° | 24.1° | 24.0° | 23.9° | 23.8° | 23.7° | 23.55° | 23.45° |
No | Rock-Cut Monument Type of Observations | Orientation of the Facility | Observed Phenomenon | Archaeoastronomical Dating |
---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Belintash [15] horizon observations | Summer solstice | Sunrise | 2000 BCE |
2. | Zaychi vruh (Cabyle) [25] horizon observations meridional culminations | Summer solstice and equinoxes | Sunrise, sunset, stellar and solar culminations | 2200 BCE |
3. | Tatul [27] horizon observations | Winter solstice and equinoxes | Sunrise | 2200 BCE |
4. | Tangarduk kaya cave [19] meridional culminations | Winter solstice | Solar culminations | 3000 BCE |
5. | Harman kaya [26] horizon observations | Summer and winter solstices and equinoxes | Sunrise, sunset | 2500 BCE |
6. | Buzovgrad [20] horizon observations | Summer solstice | Sunset | 1800 BCE |
7. | Tsarevi porti [22] horizon observations | Summer solstice | Sunrise | 2000 BCE |
8. | Markov kamak [21] horizon observations | Summer solstice | Sunrise | 2200 BCE |
9. | Lilyach [24] horizon observations meridional culminations | Summer and winter solstices and equinoxes | Sunrise, sunset, stellar and solar culminations | 2200 BCE |
10. | Kovil [23] horizon observations | Summer solstice and equinoxes | Sunrise | 2800 BCE |
11. | Baylovo cave [3] horizon observations | Summer and winter solstices and equinoxes | Sunrise | 3000 BCE |
12. | Magura cave [14] horizon observations | Summer and winter solstices and equinoxes | Sunrise | 3000 BCE |
13. | Parmakla kaya cave [19] meridional culminations | Winter solstice | Solar culmination | 3000 BCE |
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Stoev, A.; Shopov, Y.; Maglova, P.; Ognyanov, O.; Raykova, L. Prehistoric Astronomical Observatories and Paleoclimatic Records in Bulgaria Estimate Astroclimate during 4000–4500 BCE: A Critical Assessment. Quaternary 2023, 6, 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/quat6010006
Stoev A, Shopov Y, Maglova P, Ognyanov O, Raykova L. Prehistoric Astronomical Observatories and Paleoclimatic Records in Bulgaria Estimate Astroclimate during 4000–4500 BCE: A Critical Assessment. Quaternary. 2023; 6(1):6. https://doi.org/10.3390/quat6010006
Chicago/Turabian StyleStoev, Alexey, Yavor Shopov, Penka Maglova, Ognyan Ognyanov, and Lyubomira Raykova. 2023. "Prehistoric Astronomical Observatories and Paleoclimatic Records in Bulgaria Estimate Astroclimate during 4000–4500 BCE: A Critical Assessment" Quaternary 6, no. 1: 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/quat6010006