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Review

Crystallization Studies of Poly(Trimethylene Terephthalate) Nanocomposites—A Review

by
Nadarajah Vasanthan
Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Long Island University, One University Plaza, Brooklyn, NY 11201, USA
J. Compos. Sci. 2025, 9(8), 417; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9080417
Submission received: 10 June 2025 / Revised: 23 July 2025 / Accepted: 4 August 2025 / Published: 5 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Journal of Composites Science in 2025)
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Abstract

Poly(trimethylene terephthalate) (PTT) is a thermoplastic polyester with a unique structure due to having three methylene groups in the glycol unit. PTT competes with poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) and poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT) in carpets, textiles, and thermoplastic materials, primarily due to the development of economically efficient synthesis methods. PTT is widely utilized in textiles, carpets, and engineering plastics because of its advantageous properties, including quick-drying capabilities and wrinkle resistance. However, its low melting point, resistance to chemicals, and brittleness compared to PET, have limited its applications. To address some of these limitations for targeted applications, PTT nanocomposites incorporating clay, carbon nanotube, silica, and ZnO have been developed. The distribution of nanoparticles within the PTT matrix remains a significant challenge for its potential applications. Several techniques, including sol–gel blending, melt blending, in situ polymerization, and in situ forming methods have been developed to obtain better dispersion. This review discusses advancements in the synthesis of various PTT nanocomposites and the effects of nanoparticles on the isothermal and nonisothermal crystallization of PTT.

1. Introduction

Poly(trimethylene terephthalate) (PTT) is a thermoplastic polymer synthesized from a polycondensation reaction of 1,3-propanediol and either terephthalic acid or dimethyl terephthalate, as shown in Figure 1 [1,2]. PTT is classified as an aromatic polyester with the more widely recognized poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) and poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT). PTT was first patented in the 1940s, but its large-scale production was hindered by the cost of one of the monomers [3]. Aromatic polyester fibers such as PET and PBT have been extensively utilized in textiles, packaging, and engineering thermoplastics. However, PTT has emerged as a potential competitor in the PET and PBT markets due to the discovery of reduced synthesis costs for 1,3-propanediol [4,5]. In the 1990s, Shell developed a cost-effective pathway for producing 1,3-propanediol. DuPont has also produced 1,3-propanediol by fermentation of corn sugar. PTT is commercialized by Shell Chemicals and DuPont under the trade names Corterra and Sorona, respectively.
PTT has received significant attention in recent decades because of its desirable mechanical and electrical properties [6,7,8]. PTT has combined the physical properties of polyamides (PA6 and PA66), with those of aromatic polyesters (PET and PBT). This makes the polymer attractive for engineering textile fibers, carpets, fabrics, nonwovens, and plastics [9,10,11]. PTT fibers are known for their dyeing characteristics especially with disperse dyes, which provide colorfastness and natural stain resistance without the need for high temperatures, pH adjustments, or a carrier dyeing machine. PTT exhibits several notable optical properties similar to PET. PTT has high refractive indices typically around 1.64, which is higher than many other polymers. This high refractive index contributes to their ability to confine light, making them potentially useful in nanophotonic devices. PTT also displays good transparency from visible light into the near-infrared region, further enhancing its suitability for optical applications [12].
PTT which combines the desirable properties of PET (strength, stiffness, toughness, and heat resistance) with the processing advantages of PBT (low melt and mold temperatures, rapid crystallization, and faster cycle times), is utilized in commercial products such as textiles and carpets [13,14]. Thermal properties such as melting (Tm), glass transition (Tg), and crystallization behaviors of PET and PBT have been studied extensively with more recent research focusing on the thermal properties of PTT [15,16,17,18]. The isothermal and nonisothermal crystallization kinetics of PTT have been investigated by several research groups [19,20,21,22,23,24,25]. Earlier studies have demonstrated that the number of methylene groups in the glycol unit of aromatic polyesters influences their crystallization behavior. PTT exhibits an intermediate crystallization rate when compared to PBT, which crystallizes rapidly, and PET, which crystallizes very slowly. The crystal structure of PTT has been investigated [26,27], which assumes triclinic crystal form [28]. The helical conformation results from the low conformational energy of the highly contracted trans-gauche-gauche-trans conformation of the trimethylene glycol unit of PTT (-O-CH2-CH2-CH2-O-) which is more contracted than the conformation of PBT, and the high-energy trans-trans-trans conformation for the ethylene glycol unit of PET (-O-CH2-CH2-O-) [28,29,30,31,32]. The research was conducted incorporating various nanoparticles to reinforce the PTT matrix. This review article aims to present the developments in the area of the preparation of PTT nanocomposites and the impact of nanoparticles on the crystallization of PTT.

2. Nanocomposite

Polymer nanocomposites have attracted great interest due to tremendous enhancement in properties such as barrier properties, mechanical properties and thermal stability compared to their micro and macro counterparts [33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40]. The development of polymer nanocomposite began in the late 1980s by the Toyota research laboratory. These nanocomposites have received significant attention in academic, national, and industrial laboratories. Polymer nanocomposites are typically defined as a combination of a polymer and a small quantity of nanoparticles with at least one of the dimensions of particles in the nanometer range. Numerous methods have been developed for the preparation of these nanocomposites including conventional methods such as melt blending, intercalation, and in situ intercalative polymerization. The most commonly used nanofillers are carbon nanotubes [34], montmorillonite clay [35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44], and silica nanoparticles [45,46,47]. Numerous studies have been conducted on the formation and characterization of polymer nanocomposites with carbon nanotubes, montmorillonite clay, and silica nanoparticles. The influence of nanoparticles on the cold and melt crystallization of semicrystalline polymers has also been studied extensively. It was reported that nanoparticles can act either as effective nucleating agents or they can reduce diffusion of the chain during growth during crystallization. The characteristics of polymer nanocomposites depend on the compatibility between nanoparticles and the polymer matrix. The dispersion of nanoparticles in the polymer matrix depends on the interface between nanoparticles and the polymer [34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47].
Polymer-montmorillonite (MMT) nanocomposites emerged as a new class of materials designed to enhance the physical and mechanical properties of semicrystalline polymers. This property enhancement depends on how well nanoparticles are dispersed within the polymer matrix and the strength of the interaction between the nanoparticles and the polymer matrix [48]. Clays are generally highly hydrophilic, and can absorb and retain water. Clays can be organically modified with surfactants changing their nature from hydrophilic to hydrophobic, which improves the compatibility of the clay with the hydrophobic polymers [28]. Montmorillonite (MMT) clay is the most commonly used nanoparticle in both academic and industrial laboratories for the formation of polymer nanocomposites. Generally, pristine layered silicates contain hydrated Na+ and K+ which interact with only hydrophilic polymers [48]. To blend with other hydrophobic polymers, the hydrophilic layered surface of silicates must be converted to an organophilic surface. MMT is a natural clay mineral formed from volcanic ash or volcanic rocks, and the crystal structure of MMT is illustrated in Figure 2. These MMTs consist of tetrahedral silica and octahedral alumina sheets in a 2:1 ratio. The octahedral alumina sheet consists of two planes of closely packed hydroxyl or oxygen atoms with aluminum atoms located at the centers of the octahedral coordinates. This alumina layer is sandwiched with two tetrahedral sheets of silica to form one layer of MMT which has a thickness of about 1 nm.
A net negative charge on the platelets is generated within the silicate layer due to isomorphous substitution. This charge imbalance is corrected by metal cations such as calcium and sodium in the interlayer. MMT is generally highly hydrophilic, making it naturally incompatible with polymer systems. The ion exchange with organic cations such as alkylammonium ions makes MMT organophilic and enhances its compatibility with polymers. Polymer-MMT nanocomposites can be classified into three types based on the dispersion of clay layers within the polymer matrix: intercalated, intercalated, flocculated, and exfoliated nanocomposites, shown in Figure 3. The exfoliated nanocomposites are preferred due to their superior property improvements.

3. PTT Nanocomposites

3.1. PTT/Orgnoclay Nanocomposites

Hu and Lesser investigated the influence of clay on the crystal morphology of PTT/clay nanocomposites [49]. Several intercalated PTT-clay nanocomposites were prepared in this study through the melt blending of PTT with organoclays [49]. Six different commercially available clays (M10A, M15A, 20A, M25A, M93A, and M30B) were utilized, and the hydrophilicity of clay decreased in the following order: M30B > M10A > M25A > M93A > M20A > M15A [49]. Crystallization and the melting behavior of these nanocomposites were investigated by XRD, TEM, and DSC. XRD results revealed no significant effect on the d-spacing of these PTT nanocomposites. However, XRD exhibited a shoulder with a gradual increase in diffraction intensity toward a lower angle for the most hydrophobic systems [49]. This study concluded that MMT influences crystallization behavior. The impact of nanosilicates on crystallization and melting was pronounced when the nanosilicate concentration ranged from 0 to 3 wt% while no significant changes were observed when the concentration of nanosilicate exceeded 3 wt%. The thermal properties of PTT nanocomposites containing various 3% clay types are displayed in Table 1. It is evident from Table 1 that the heat of fusion of composites is significantly greater than that of neat PTT [49], suggesting an increase in crystallinity with the addition of clay. However, a correlation between crystallization rate and MMT loading was not established in this investigation.
PTT nanocomposites were prepared through the melt blending of PTT with 2% organoclay DKTM, as reported by Liu et al. [50]. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) indicated that these nanocomposites exhibited greater thermal stability compared to pure PTT [48,50]. XRD and TEM observation showed these nanostructures were exfoliated, as shown in Figure 4 [50]. The influence of organoclay on the melt crystallization of PTT was investigated. It was demonstrated that the introduction of clay enhances the crystallization rate of PTT by acting as a nucleating agent [48,50]. Optical microscopic images of neat PTT and PTT nanocomposite with 2% DK isothermally crystallized at 210 °C were compared. The neat PTT formed a typical spherulitic structure with a size of 40–50 μm, and the diameter of nanocomposite spherulites was much smaller, as shown in Figure 5. The glass transition temperature, Tg, was 13 °C greater and the storage modulus was approximately 10 times greater for PTT nanocomposites compared to that of neat PTT.
Isothermal melt crystallization kinetics of PTT nanocomposites was studied and analyzed using the well-known Avrami equation
1 − χt = exp(−Zttn)
where χt is the crystalline fraction at a particular time t, n is the Avrami exponent, k is the rate constant, and t is the crystallization time. This equation is further rewritten by taking a double logarithmic form as follows [50]
lg[−ln(1 − χt)] = n lg t + lg Zt
The Avrami analysis for neat PTT and its nanocomposites were obtained from the plot of lg[−ln(1 − χt)] versus lgt. The n and k values are directly obtained from the slope and intercept of best-fit lines. The values of Zt, n and t1/2 are listed in Table 2 [50]. The change in the “n” value from 2.33 for neat PTT to 2.55–2.73 for PTT nanocomposite indicated that clay layers dispersed in the matrix influence the crystallization behavior [50].
PTT nanocomposites containing organically modified montmorillonite (C12PPh-MMT) were synthesized through in situ intercalation polymerization of dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) and 1,3-propanediol [51]. These nanocomposites were melt-spun with varying organoclay contents and draw ratios. Stress-induced crystallization studies revealed that the thermal and mechanical properties of the PTT nanocomposites improved with increasing clay content. Notably, the thermomechanical properties of the PTT nanocomposite fibers were enhanced with the incorporation of a tiny amount of organically modified clay. The tensile strength decreases as the extension ratio increases, while the initial modulus remains constant. Agglomeration was observed within the PTT matrix when the clay exceeds 2% in the PTT matrix [51].
PTT nanocomposites with closite15A were synthesized using a novel two-step process [52,53]. Specified amounts of clay and PTT were suspended in trifluoracetic acid and sonicated for approximately 30 min. After the solvent evaporated, homogeneous films were produced. PTT nanocomposite films were then melt-pressed followed by fast quenching to avoid crystallization [52]. These films were confirmed by XRD and DSC as predominantly amorphous. Figure 6 displays the XRD patterns of pure Closite 15A, and PTT composites with different amounts of Closite 15A crystallized from the melt at 150 °C [52]. Closite 15A showed a strong reflection at 2θ = 3.50°, attributed to the d(001) plane. The d-spacing was calculated using Bragg’s equation, 2dsinθ = nλ, yielding a 2.52 nm. XRD patterns of PTT nanocomposites showed no diffraction peaks, indicating that exfoliated nanocomposites were mainly formed [52]. TEM analysis is often employed to corroborate XRD results, and a TEM micrograph of PTT with 5% Cloisite 15A is also presented in Figure 6. The TEM micrograph further confirmed that the clay platelets were fully separated [52].
To study the crystallization of the quenched sample, the samples were heated from 25 °C to 100 °C. DSC scans of quenched PTT and PTT-15A nanocomposite films heated from 30° to 100 °C are shown in Figure 7 [53]. Three transitions: glass-transition temperature (Tg at 45 °C), melting endotherm (Tm at 227 °C), and a cold crystallization exotherm (Tcc at 54 °C) are clearly seen in the heating scan. The Tg of PTT-15A nanocomposites remains unchanged with the incorporation of nanoparticles. However, the Tcc of the PTT-15A nanocomposites was observed at higher temperatures, and it increased with the rising 15A content, suggesting an apparent decrease in crystallization rate with increasing clay content [53]. The increase in the Tcc for PTT nanocomposites is attributed to the interaction between the PTT chains and clay, which hinders the motion of the PTT chains. The heat of nonisothermal cold crystallization exotherm (∆Hc) increased with clay content, which is attributed to the slower crystallization rate of the PTT nanocomposites compared to neat PTT, allowing for the formation of more stable crystallites [53]. The crystallinity increased gradually with the rising cold crystallization temperature (Ta) while the crystallinity(χc), rose quickly with clay content for the PTT-15A nanocomposites during isothermal cold crystallization, as shown in Figure 8.
The isothermal melt crystallization behavior of PTT was examined to see the effect of exfoliated Closite 15A. The melting temperature (Tm) showed no change with both melt crystallization temperature and the clay content [52]. The Tm of both the melt-crystallized neat PTT and PTT nanocomposites exhibited multiple peaks, and these were attributed to simultaneous melting and recrystallization or variations in lamellar thickness. Crystallinity vs. clay loading is plotted in Figure 9 for the samples melt crystallized at different temperatures. These crystallinity values increased with both the crystallization temperature and the clay loading. PTT nanocomposites with varying amounts of Cloisite 15A were isothermal crystallized from the melt at 110 °C, 150 °C, and 190 °C. Figure 10 displays an optical micrograph of PTT nanocomposites that were isothermally melt-crystallized at 190 °C. It was seen that the size of the spherulites decreased as the clay content increased for each melt crystallization temperature [52].
Lawrence and Vasanthan [52] investigated the nonisothermal crystallization kinetics of PTT nanocomposites. DSC scans revealed that the nonisothermal melt crystallization exotherms became sharper and shifted to higher temperatures as the clay content increased. It was indicated that crystallization of the PTT nanocomposites is easier than that of neat PTT as the clay content increased. The crystallization half-time (t1/2) is often used to study the rate of crystallization, and it is defined as the time required to achieve half of the crystallinity. The t1/2 of PTT nanocomposites during nonisothermal melt crystallization decreased significantly with the clay content as illustrated in Table 3 [52]. The PTT nanocomposite containing 10% organoclay exhibited the lowest t1/2, indicating that it has the highest crystallization rate.
The crystallization of polymers occurs in two steps: primary and secondary crystallization. Avrami equation (Equation (1)) is often used to determine the kinetics of isothermal crystallization. The nonisothermal crystallization is more complicated but the primary step has been analyzed using the Avrami equation with the assumption that the crystallization temperature remains constant [52].
1 − Xc = exp(−Zttn)
where Zt is the Avrami rate constant, and n is the Avrami exponent. Avrami equation can be rewritten in the double logarithmic form (Equation (2)):
log[−ln(1 − Xc)] = n log t + log Zt
Jeziorny et al. [54] further modified the rate constant in the isothermal crystallization process with the cooling rate (Equation (3)) to eliminate the influence of the cooling rate, obtaining the Jeziorny equation, which describes the nonisothermal crystallization kinetics of polymers
log Zc = log Zt/φ
where φ is the constant cooling rate and Zc is the kinetic crystallization rate constant. The “n” and “Zc” values are summarized in Table 3. The “n” values varied from 3.48 of neat PTT to 3.72 for the nanocomposite containing 10% organoclay. It was inferred that crystal growth should be three-dimensional with a nucleation type that is mainly of heterogeneous thermal nucleation, due to the fractional number for n. The n values were larger for PTT nanocomposites compared to neat PTT.

3.2. PTT/ Mesoporous Silica Nanocomposite

Mesoporous silica was first developed by the Mobil Oil Company and is one of the most important nanostructured materials. Mesoporous silica (SBA-15) has become the next-generation nanostructured material to be blended with polymers to form nanocomposites [55]. Yin et al. incorporated SBA-15 into the PTT matrix to prepare PTT/SBA-15 nanocomposites. In situ polymerization method was utilized to prepare PTT/SBA-15 with 0–5 weight percent of SBA-15. The molar mass of PTT in the composite was characterized and showed a significant decrease with the addition of SBA-15, indicating that mesoporous silica influences the polymerization process of PTT. SEM images observed for the fractured surface of the nanocomposites showed that SBA-15 particles are well dispersed [55]. The addition of SBA-15 showed an impact on both the molecular weight and the supramolecular structure of PTT [54]. The addition of SBA-15 nanoparticles showed a significant increase in nonisothermal melt crystallization temperature as well as the rate of crystallization compared to neat PTT. It was found that the composite presented lower folding surface free energy and higher diffusion activation energy. It was concluded in this study that the crystallization rate of the PTT is dominated by the nucleation instead of the growth one [55].

3.3. PTT/Inorganic Nanocomposite

PTT/silica and PTT/ZnO nanocomposites were synthesized using two step in situ polymerization method [56,57]. In order to characterize the influence of silica and ZnO nanoparticles and propyl ester molecules on molecular weight of PTT, and viscosity-average molecular weight (Mv) of pure PTT and nanocomposites were determined [55,56]. The molecular weight of synthesized PTT decreased gradually with the addition of nanoparticles and the incorporation of propyl ester molecules, indicating restrained the movement of PTT oligomers, and propyl ester molecules. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was used to evaluate the graft reactions, and conformed that PTT chains were grafted on the surface of nanoparticles, confirmed by FTIR and 1H NMR spectroscopies [56,57]. PTT grafted onto the nanoparticles were found to be insoluble in typical solvents used for PTT dissolution. TEM and SEM observations revealed that silica particles with a size of 40–50 nm and ZnO particles of a size 20–30 nm were homogeneously dispersed within the PTT matrix [56,57]. The glass transition temperature and cold crystallization temperature were gradually increased with increasing nanoparticle loading [56]. PTT/silica nanocomposite was synthesized recently using sol–gel method [58]. The scanning electron microscopy and zeta-sizer were used to determine the particle size. It was demonstrated that the silica particles with a size range of 80–100 nm were uniformly dispersed in the PTT matrix. The spherulite size were found to decrease gradually with increasing silica loading and increased with crystallization temperature [58]. Nonisothermal cold crystallization temperature decreased with increasing silica content, while no significant changes in nonisothermal melt crystallization behavior were observed with varying silica content. The crystallinity of PTT that was isothermally melt crystallized increased with both crystallization temperature and silica loadings [58].

4. Conclusions

Poly(trimethylene terephthalate) (PTT) is a semicrystalline polymer that has many of the same advantages as its polyester cousins, PBT and PET. PTT exhibits better tensile strengths, flexural strengths, and stiffness with an excellent flow and surface finish. PTT can also be more cost-effective than PBT. PTT may have more uniform shrinkage and better dimensional stability in some applications than competing semicrystalline materials. PTT has not been widely utilized as an engineering plastic because of its low heat distortion temperature and low melt viscosity. To address these limitations, PTT nanocomposites incorporating various nanoparticles have been developed. These nanoparticles restrict chain mobility and rigidity that can lead to higher viscosity and heat distortion temperature. This review highlights advancements in the use of different nanoparticles, such as clay, silica, and carbon nanotube, as reinforcing agents in polymer nanocomposites. The preparation of each type of polymer nanocomposite presents unique challenges in achieving the desired properties and ensuring good dispersion of nanoparticles within the polymer matrices. Different preparation methods yield distinct final products, resulting in nanocomposites with varying mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties. In this review, we also discuss the influence of nanoparticles on isothermal and nonisothermal melt and cold crystallization, and we provide a detailed discussion on the morphology of PTT.

Funding

The research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Synthesis of poly(trimethylene terephthalate) via polycondensation [4].
Figure 1. Synthesis of poly(trimethylene terephthalate) via polycondensation [4].
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Figure 2. Crystal structure of Montmorillonite (MMT) [48].
Figure 2. Crystal structure of Montmorillonite (MMT) [48].
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Figure 3. Structures of possible polymer-clay nanocomposites [48].
Figure 3. Structures of possible polymer-clay nanocomposites [48].
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Figure 4. (a) XRD pattern of pure PTT, pure DK2 and PTT-DK2 nanocomposite (b) TEM image of PTT-DK2 [50].
Figure 4. (a) XRD pattern of pure PTT, pure DK2 and PTT-DK2 nanocomposite (b) TEM image of PTT-DK2 [50].
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Figure 5. Optical microscopic images of isothermally melt crystallized (a) PTT and (b) PTT-DK2 nanocomposite [50].
Figure 5. Optical microscopic images of isothermally melt crystallized (a) PTT and (b) PTT-DK2 nanocomposite [50].
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Figure 6. (a) XRD patterns of PTT nanocomposites and (b) TEM micrograph of PTT/ 5% 15A nanocomposite [52].
Figure 6. (a) XRD patterns of PTT nanocomposites and (b) TEM micrograph of PTT/ 5% 15A nanocomposite [52].
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Figure 7. DSC scans of pure PTT and PTT nanocomposites during heating (a) neat PTT (b) PTT with 2% clay (c) PTT with 5% clay and (d) PTT with 10% clay [53].
Figure 7. DSC scans of pure PTT and PTT nanocomposites during heating (a) neat PTT (b) PTT with 2% clay (c) PTT with 5% clay and (d) PTT with 10% clay [53].
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Figure 8. Crystallinity versus annealing temperature [53].
Figure 8. Crystallinity versus annealing temperature [53].
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Figure 9. Crystallinity versus clay content for neat PTT and PTT nanocomposites melt crystallized at different temperatures [52].
Figure 9. Crystallinity versus clay content for neat PTT and PTT nanocomposites melt crystallized at different temperatures [52].
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Figure 10. Optical micrographs of PTT nanocomposite crystallized from the melt at 190 °C: (a) neat PTT, (b) 1%, clay (c) 2%, clay and (d) 5% clay [52].
Figure 10. Optical micrographs of PTT nanocomposite crystallized from the melt at 190 °C: (a) neat PTT, (b) 1%, clay (c) 2%, clay and (d) 5% clay [52].
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Table 1. Thermal properties of PTT nanocomposites with various 3% clays [49].
Table 1. Thermal properties of PTT nanocomposites with various 3% clays [49].
SamplePTTPTT/MNaPTT/M10APTT/M15APTT/M20APTT/M25APTT/M30BPTT/M93A
Tg (°C)45.94543.84343.74443.844.7
Tcc onset (°C)66.965.564.865.964.465.664.167.2
Tcc (°C)69.468.167.268.366.96866.769.7
ΔHcc (J/g)30.834.232.330.934.435.332.931
Tm onset (°C)221.1219.5221.2221217222.2219221.7
Tm (°C)227.7226227227.3226.6227.9227228.6
ΔHm (J/g)60.366.263.163.566.965.965.267
Tc onset (°C)186.8188.2195.7194.3195.3195.9194.7190.8
Tc (°C)175.6179.2190.4188.7189.5191189.2183.6
ΔHc (J/g)49.857.256.456.361.561.256.456.1
Table 2. Kinetic parameters of PTT and PTT nanocomposite isothermally melt crystallized at different temperatures [50].
Table 2. Kinetic parameters of PTT and PTT nanocomposite isothermally melt crystallized at different temperatures [50].
T0 (°C)Ztnt1/2 (s)
PTT1862.952.330.54
1901.052.320.77
1940.382.281.32
1980.132.242.28
2020.072.323.92
PTT/DK21963.632.520.53
2000.842.590.92
2040.182.731.64
2080.042.533.06
2120.012.585.39
Table 3. Thermal and kinetic data of nonisothermal melt crystallization of PTT and its nanocomposites [52].
Table 3. Thermal and kinetic data of nonisothermal melt crystallization of PTT and its nanocomposites [52].
Clay
(%)		ΔH
(J/g)		Crystallinity
(%)		Tc Onset
(°C)		Tc Maximum
(°C)		t1/2
(s)		nZc
(min−n)
0−533619818988.23.480.2021
1−563919818875.13.580.2058
2−5740197189743.590.206
5−594319719070.23.610.2082
10−614619919543.83.720.2364
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Vasanthan, N. Crystallization Studies of Poly(Trimethylene Terephthalate) Nanocomposites—A Review. J. Compos. Sci. 2025, 9, 417. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9080417

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Vasanthan N. Crystallization Studies of Poly(Trimethylene Terephthalate) Nanocomposites—A Review. Journal of Composites Science. 2025; 9(8):417. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9080417

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Vasanthan, Nadarajah. 2025. "Crystallization Studies of Poly(Trimethylene Terephthalate) Nanocomposites—A Review" Journal of Composites Science 9, no. 8: 417. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9080417

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Vasanthan, N. (2025). Crystallization Studies of Poly(Trimethylene Terephthalate) Nanocomposites—A Review. Journal of Composites Science, 9(8), 417. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9080417

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