Improving Durability and Mechanical Properties of Silty Sand Stabilized with Geopolymer and Nanosilica Composites
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample Preparation
2.2. Wetting–Drying Cycle Test
2.3. Leaching Test
2.4. FE-SEM and EDX Tests
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Investigation of the Saturation Conditions
3.2. Effect of Curing Time
3.3. Wetting–Drying Cycle Test (W–D)
3.3.1. Mass Loss
3.3.2. Leaching and pH Test Results
3.3.3. The Effects of W–D Cycles on Stress–Strain Behavior
4. FE-SEM and EDX Analysis
5. Conclusions
- Following saturation for 48 h, nearly all analyzed specimens showed a decline in strength as a result of saturation. However, they exhibited satisfactory stability and strength in contrast to unstabilized soil, which broke down after 5 h of saturation. Regarding the compressive strength of sample GGBS-N, it was observed that after 48 h of saturation, the UCS increased by 20%. This resulted from the ongoing chemical reactions following the seven-day curing, which resulted in the increased strength.
- The UCS of 14- and 45-day cured samples during W–D cycles illustrated the considerable drop after cycle one for RGP-based samples and remained constant after cycle three to the end (eighth cycle). However, the GGBS-based samples retained their initial strength even after 8 days of W–D cycles. Furthermore, the absorbed energy and elongation at break are inversely and directly related to the increase in cycle number in both group samples.
- The results of the durability test were indicated by the mass loss of the samples. For GGBS-N and RGP-N samples, a significant reduction in mass loss of 7% and 10%, respectively, was measured after cycle two, which was related to the leaching of the geopolymerization products after the W–D cycles.
- Leaching and pH tests indicated that the toxicity of all leached solutions was below the permissible limit. However, the high pH of the leached solution can pose a problem for the environment.
- SEM and EDS analysis showed that as the number of W–D cycles increased, the number of cracks and voids increased in RGP-N samples, which was reversed in GGBS-N samples.
- From the UCS and mass loss results, “GGBS-N” can be selected as a suitable blend for durability to W–D cycles. Ultimately, stabilizing silty sand with GGBS-based geopolymer is a suitable and durable method for geotechnical applications in harsh climates.
- The improvement in the mechanical performance of the stabilized soil, particularly UCS, can be attributed to the formation of geopolymer gels resulting from the alkali activation of aluminosilicate precursors. This process involves the dissolution of reactive silica and alumina species, followed by polycondensation reactions that generate a binding matrix, predominantly in the form of C(N)-A-S-H gels in sodium-activated, calcium-rich (GGBS) systems. These gels create a dense microstructure that enhances particle bonding, reduces porosity, and increases load-bearing capacity. In addition to strength gains, the formation of geopolymer gels may also contribute to improved soil durability, moisture resistance, and overall stability, highlighting their potential for sustainable soil improvement applications.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Property | Result |
---|---|
Soil classification (USCS) | Silty Sand (SM) |
Coefficient of uniformity (Cu) | 9.262 |
Coefficient of curvature (Cc) | 1.939 |
OMC [37] | 13% |
MDD [37] | 1.57 gr/cm3 |
Specific gravity (Gs) [39] | 2.64 |
Component Oxides (%) | GGBS | RGP |
---|---|---|
SiO2 | 36.50 | 73.77 |
Al2O3 | 13.04 | 1.91 |
Fe2O3 | 0.36 | 0.03 |
CaO | 38.94 | 8.87 |
MgO | 8.72 | 2.14 |
Na2O | 0.11 | 11.55 |
K2O | 0.31 | 0.28 |
P2O5 | 0.11 | 0 |
SO3 | 1.76 | 0.78 |
TiO2 | 0.01 | 0 |
Mn2O3 | 0.32 | 0 |
LoI | 1.03 | 0.22 |
Sample Type | Water Content (%) | Sand (%) | GGBS (%) | RGP (%) | Nanomaterials (%) | Alkali Activator (NaOH) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NS | 13 | 100 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 13% (7MOL) |
GGBS | 13 | 80 | 20 | 0 | 0 | |
RGP | 13 | 80 | 0 | 20 | 0 | |
GGBS-N | 13 | 80 | 18 | 0 | 2 | |
RGP-N | 13 | 80 | 0 | 18 | 2 |
Samples | K+ | Na+ | Ca2+ | Si4+ | Al3+ | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C1 | C8 | C1 | C8 | C1 | C8 | C1 | C8 | C1 | C8 | |
GGBS-N | 34.26 | 2.55 | 2880 | 175 | 0.47 | 0.15 | 52.7 | 13.6 | 10.31 | <0.1 |
RGP-N | 26.14 | 4.31 | 3902 | 496 | 0.6 | 0.26 | 2266 | 48.5 | 7.44 | <0.1 |
Metal | GGBS-N (mg/L) | RGP-N (mg/L) | USEPA Limit (mg/L) |
---|---|---|---|
As | 1.07 | 0.93 | 5 |
Bi | <0.05 | <0.05 | N/A |
Cd | <0.05 | <0.05 | 1 |
Cr | <0.05 | <0.05 | 5 |
Cu | 0.12 | <0.05 | N/A |
Ni | <0.05 | <0.05 | N/A |
Pb | <0.05 | <0.05 | 5 |
Se | 0.05 | 0.07 | N/A |
Zn | <0.05 | <0.05 | 100 |
Mix ID | Si/Al | NA/Al | UCS (MPa) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C0 | C8 | C0 | C8 | C0 | C8 | |
GGBS-N | 3.27 | 3.95 | 0.86 | 0.54 | 4.7 | 4.2 |
RGP-N | 7.2 | 7.33 | 3.29 | 0 | 5.6 | 0.9 |
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Jafari Kermanipour, M.; Bagheripour, M.H.; Yaghoubi, E. Improving Durability and Mechanical Properties of Silty Sand Stabilized with Geopolymer and Nanosilica Composites. J. Compos. Sci. 2025, 9, 397. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9080397
Jafari Kermanipour M, Bagheripour MH, Yaghoubi E. Improving Durability and Mechanical Properties of Silty Sand Stabilized with Geopolymer and Nanosilica Composites. Journal of Composites Science. 2025; 9(8):397. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9080397
Chicago/Turabian StyleJafari Kermanipour, Mojtaba, Mohammad Hossein Bagheripour, and Ehsan Yaghoubi. 2025. "Improving Durability and Mechanical Properties of Silty Sand Stabilized with Geopolymer and Nanosilica Composites" Journal of Composites Science 9, no. 8: 397. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9080397
APA StyleJafari Kermanipour, M., Bagheripour, M. H., & Yaghoubi, E. (2025). Improving Durability and Mechanical Properties of Silty Sand Stabilized with Geopolymer and Nanosilica Composites. Journal of Composites Science, 9(8), 397. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9080397