Influence of Various Crack Widths in RC Bridge Decks on the Initiation of Chloride-Induced Corrosion
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Framework and Research Methodology Modelling
2.1. Overview of the Modelling Approach
- Integration of Climate Projections: Climate data from the CCCR and IPCC RCP scenarios were incorporated to simulate future environmental conditions. These projections were used to adjust the chloride diffusion coefficient on the basis of the maximum temperature and RH.
- Monte Carlo simulation for probabilistic modelling: MCS was used to assess the variability in the time to corrosion initiation by randomly sampling key input parameters (assessing the PCI under stochastic environmental and structural conditions). For each scenario, 100,000 simulations were performed to account for the variability in key parameters, including the chloride surface concentration (Cs), the concrete cover thickness (x), and the chloride threshold levels (Cth).
- Correction of the Chloride Diffusion Coefficient: The chloride diffusion coefficient (D) was adjusted to reflect the effects of temperature, maturation time, and relative humidity via an adaptation of Saetta et al.’s [41] approach.
- Modelling of Chloride Ingress: Chloride ingress was modelled via Fick’s second law of diffusion for uncracked concrete. For cracked concrete, the diffusion coefficient (Dcc) was partitioned into contributions from uncracked and cracked regions, as described by Djerbi et al. [18] and Takewaka et al. [33]. The influence of crack width (0.1 mm to 0.35 mm) on corrosion initiation time was evaluated via polynomial relationships derived from regression analyses.
- Analysis of Environmental Parameters: A comparative analysis was performed to independently assess the influences of temperature and relative humidity on the PCI.
- Evaluation of Supplementary Cementing Materials: The model incorporated the mitigating role of SCMs in reducing chloride diffusion and extending corrosion-free service life.
2.2. Projection of the Maximum Temperature for Toronto Under Different Climate Scenarios
- RCP2.6 (Low-Emission Scenario): This scenario reflects aggressive mitigation strategies to limit the rise in global temperature. Under RCP2.6, Toronto’s maximum annual temperature will reach 36.4 °C by 2100.
- RCP8.5 (High-Emission Scenario): This scenario represents a future with continued high energy consumption and limited climate action. Under RCP8.5, Toronto’s maximum annual temperature could rise to 41.7 °C by 2100.
2.3. Performance Function for Chloride-Induced Corrosion Initiation
2.4. Corrected Chloride Diffusion Coefficient (Dc)
2.5. Probabilistic Approach for Climate-Related Corrosion Initiation Assessment
2.6. Validation of the Chloride-Induced Corrosion Initiation Model
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Impact of the Maximum Temperature and Relative Humidity on the PCI
3.2. Chloride-Induced Corrosion Initiation in Uncracked and Cracked Concrete
3.2.1. Corrosion Initiation Model and Assumptions
3.2.2. Time to Corrosion Initiation for Uncracked Concrete
3.2.3. Lag Time Due to Chloride Concentration Differences
3.2.4. Cracked vs. Uncracked Concrete Performance
- Compared with the uncracked concrete, the cracked concrete has substantially lower Ti values across all the cases. For example, in SCM-modified concrete, cracking reduces the quadratic coefficient from 0.0047 to 0.0037 and introduces a significant negative linear term, reflecting the sharp decline in corrosion resistance due to cracking.
- For concrete without SCMs, the Ti values are the lowest, particularly under cracked conditions, emphasizing the compounding negative effects of cracking and the absence of SCMs on long-term durability.
3.2.5. Lag Time: Cracked vs. Uncracked
3.3. Effect of Crack Width on Chloride Diffusion and Corrosion Initiation
3.3.1. Influence of the Crack Width on the Diffusion Coefficient
3.3.2. Time to Corrosion Initiation Based on Crack Width
3.3.3. Practical Implications for Cover Design and SCM Use
4. Conclusions
- The crack width significantly accelerates corrosion initiation. For a 0.25 mm crack (maximum allowed by CHBDC for exposure to deicing salts), the corrosion initiation time is reduced by 34–41%, with a greater reduction in unmodified normal concrete (NC) than in SCM-enhanced concrete.
- High-performance concrete (HPC) with SCMs offers superior durability, nearly doubling the corrosion initiation time compared with that of NC under identical exposure. HPC also demonstrates reduced sensitivity to humidity due to its dense microstructure.
- Temperature has a dominant influence on the PCI. Under the RCP8.5 scenario, projected increases in maximum temperatures (40–45 °C) sharply reduce service life in both NC and HPC. In contrast, relative humidity (60–75%) had a minimal effect on the HPC but significantly worsened the PCI in NC.
- Both the crack width and cover depth affect the PCI in a nonlinear manner. The corrosion initiation time follows a second-degree polynomial relationship with respect to both parameters, enabling accurate service life estimation. Increased cover improves durability but shows diminishing returns beyond 70 mm.
- Polynomial equations developed for various parameters (e.g., crack width, chloride concentration, and SCM use) provide a scalable tool for predicting corrosion initiation, offering actionable insights for engineers and code developers.
5. Study Limitations
6. Practical Implications
- Durability-Based Design Updates: The study highlights the need to revise current crack width limits and concrete cover requirements in bridge design codes, such as the CHBDC, to account for accelerated chloride ingress under elevated temperatures and humidity projections.
- Material Selection Strategies: The superior performance of HPC observed under cracked conditions and variable climates suggests that incorporating SCMs such as silica fume or fly ash should be encouraged in future infrastructure projects to enhance durability and service life.
- Crack Control as a Priority: The strong influence of crack width on corrosion initiation underscores the importance of stringent crack control measures during construction and inspection. Design specifications should prioritize minimizing crack formation, particularly in regions exposed to deicing salts and climate change effects.
- Climate-Resilient Infrastructure Planning: By integrating probabilistic modelling with climate projections (RCP2.6 and RCP8.5), this study provides a scalable framework for evaluating the long-term performance of RC bridge decks. These tools can assist infrastructure owners and policymakers in prioritizing rehabilitation strategies and allocating maintenance resources more effectively.
- Future Asset Management Systems: The probabilistic models developed can be incorporated into bridge management systems to better predict future maintenance needs, optimize intervention timing, and reduce life-cycle costs associated with corrosion-induced deterioration.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Random Variables | Mean Value (μ) | Coefficient of Variation (COV) | Distribution |
---|---|---|---|
Chloride Concentration (Cs) (kg/m3) | 6 | 30% | Log-normal |
Concrete Cover (x) (mm) | 70 | 20% | |
Chloride threshold (Cth) (kg/m3) | 0.7 | 20% | |
D (m2/s) for NC | 1.27 × 10−12 | 25% | |
D (m2/s) for HPC | 6.342 × 10−13 | 25% |
Concrete Type | Cs = 3 kg/m3 | Cs = 6 kg/m3 |
---|---|---|
NC | Ti = 0.0088 (CV)2 – 7 × 10−6(CV) + 0.0002 | Ti = 0.0051 (CV)2 − 0.0015 × (CV) + 0.0629 |
HPC | Ti = 0.0176 (CV)2 – 8 × 10−6(CV) + 0.0002 | Ti = 0.0102 (CV)2 − 2 × 10−6(CV) + 7 × 10−5 |
Concrete Type | Cracked Concrete (w = 0.25 mm) | Uncracked Concrete |
---|---|---|
SCM | Ti = 0.0037 (CV)2 − 0.1118 (CV) + 1.4843 | Ti = 0.0047 (CV)2 − 5 × 10−7 (CV) + 4 × 10−5 |
without SCM | Ti = 0.0027 (CV)2 − 0.0677 (CV) + 0.8386 | Ti = 0.0031 × (CV)2 + 2 × 10−6 × (CV) – 7 × 10−5 |
Concrete Cover (mm) | Types of Concrete Used for the RC Bridge Deck | |
---|---|---|
Concrete with SCM | Concrete Without SCM | |
40 | Dcc = −8 × 10−25·(CW)2 + 8 × 10−12·(CW) + 1 × 10−12 | Dcc = −4 × 10−25 (CW)2 + 8 × 10−12 (CW) + 2 × 10−12 |
50 | Dcc = 4 × 10−25 (CW)2 + 7 × 10−12 (CW) + 1 × 10−12 | Dcc = 7 × 10−12 × (CW) +2 × 10−12 |
60 | Dcc = 6 × 10−12 (CW) + 1x10−12 | Dcc = 4 × 10−25 (CW)2 + 6 × 10−12 (CW) +2 × 10−12 |
70 | Dcc = 4 × 10−25 (CW)2 + 5 × 10−12 (CW) + 1 × 10−12 | Dcc = −4 × 10−25 (CW)2 + 5 × 10−12 (CW) +2 × 10−12 |
Concrete Cover (mm) | Without SCM | With SCM |
---|---|---|
40 | Ti = 12.638(CW)2 − 11.531(CW) + 4.5521 | Ti = 23.875(CW)2 − 19.705(CW) + 6.3891 |
60 | Ti = 21.821(CW)2 − 22.149(CW) + 10.665 | Ti = 45.579(CW)2 − 40.709(CW) +15.424 |
70 | Ti = 26.179(CW)2 − 27.910(CW) + 14.675 | Ti = 56.836(CW)2 − 52.681(CW) + 21.430 |
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Hassan, M.; Amleh, L. Influence of Various Crack Widths in RC Bridge Decks on the Initiation of Chloride-Induced Corrosion. J. Compos. Sci. 2025, 9, 242. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9050242
Hassan M, Amleh L. Influence of Various Crack Widths in RC Bridge Decks on the Initiation of Chloride-Induced Corrosion. Journal of Composites Science. 2025; 9(5):242. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9050242
Chicago/Turabian StyleHassan, Mostafa, and Lamya Amleh. 2025. "Influence of Various Crack Widths in RC Bridge Decks on the Initiation of Chloride-Induced Corrosion" Journal of Composites Science 9, no. 5: 242. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9050242
APA StyleHassan, M., & Amleh, L. (2025). Influence of Various Crack Widths in RC Bridge Decks on the Initiation of Chloride-Induced Corrosion. Journal of Composites Science, 9(5), 242. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9050242