The Capabilities of Spark-Assisted Chemical Engraving: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. SACE Setup and Machining Modes
2.1. Gravity-Feed Machining
2.2. Constant Velocity-Feed Machining
Drilling Forces
2.3. Other Machining Modes
3. The Gas Film
- OA: Thermodynamic Region: The water’s decomposition potential is not yet reached and no electrolysis occurs.
- AB: Ohmic Region: Water electrolysis occurs.
- BC: Limiting-Current Region: Bubbles coalesce saturating the current.
- CD: Transition Region: A gas film starts forming around the tool covering its surface; machining becomes possible. A current density of around 1 is generally required for gas film formation.
- DE: Arc Region: Nucleation sites of actives bubbles are covered now with the gas film, and current is transported through microlevel arc discharges.
4. The Major Process Parameters
4.1. The Electrolyte
4.1.1. Electrolyte Material
Glass
Ceramics
4.1.2. Electrolyte Concentration
Glass
Ceramics
4.1.3. Addition of Surfactants/Magnetic Fields
Glass
4.2. Tool-Electrode
4.2.1. Tool-Electrode Material
Glass
Ceramics
4.2.2. Tool-Electrode GeometryGlass
Glass
Ceramics
4.2.3. Tool-Electrode Rotational Speed
4.3. Machining Voltage
Glass
Ceramics
5. SACE Capabilities Compared to Other Processes
5.1. Surface Quality and Machining Speed
5.1.1. Micro-Hole Drilling
5.1.2. Micro-Channel Machining
5.2. Surface Functionalization
6. Conclusions and Outlook
- SACE is capable of performing state-of-the-art drilling, milling, cutting, die sinking, and surface functionalization (like grinding and texturing) while offering reasonable trade-offs in terms of machining quality and speed. Machining occurs due to the electrochemical discharges generated at the tool tip where the machining mechanism is based on thermally assisted etching.
- The two most common machining modes are the gravity feed and constant-velocity feed. In the gravity feed machining, the tool stays in contact with the workpiece, while in constant-velocity feed, the tool is fed towards the workpiece with a constant feed rate. Other machining modes were developed to improve machining performance, like current feedback and force feedback machining, which depend on analyzing the contact forces and the current signal respectively. Another approach used counter resistant feeding which also offered improvements over the conventional gravity feed method.
- The gas film is the pillar of this machining technology, and special interest is given to its qualities (shape, thickness, formation time, and lifetime). The major parameters, or specifically forces, that affect these qualities are the buoyant forces, inertial forces, and surface tension. These forces in turn depend on the machining conditions, i.e., machining voltage/time and electrolyte/tool-electrode properties. In general, a gas film is said to be stable if it has a uniformly distributed thickness around the tool electrode and a constant lifetime, in addition to having a standard deviation of its discharge currents (i.e., low fluctuations in current signals).
- The commonly used electrolytic solutions in SACE are sodium hydroxide NaOH and potassium hydroxide (KOH). Mixed electrolytes are becoming more common as well. Surface quality can be improved by up to 80% through mixing other components with the electrolyte, such as Silicon Carbide (SiC) abrasives, graphite powder, and Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) surfactants. Furthermore, the use of textured tools, rotating tools, and applying magnetic field orientations to the electrolyte can also improve the surface quality by up to 50%. These machining parameters also have an effect on the machined geometry. Research also showed that machining depth was increased by 31.9%, 43%, and 64% using a mixed electrolyte of NaOH and KOH, applying a magnetic field to NaOH electrolyte, and using textured tools, respectively. For drilling, it was demonstrated that the hole overcut can be decreased by up to 65% using novel tool geometries, like flat-sidewall-flat tools and spherical end tools. This process can establish relatively high aspect ratios (around 12) compared to chemical methods. It should be noted that similar approaches done for improving machining conditions in SACE drilling also proved to be efficient in improving other SACE variants, like cutting and milling. For example, the addition of SiC abrasives to electrolyte or using a special geometry for the tool-electrode (helical) achieved improvements in surface quality up to 43%.
- This review shows that SACE technology offers great capabilities with respect to surface functionalization. Experiments confirmed the potential of SACE in altering surface quality while machining, where holes and micro-channels with desired geometries and textured surfaces are produced. In most chemical methods, surface functionalization is a multistep process, and depositing films is done in a separate process. Some thermal methods can machine micro-channels and deposit particles simultaneously, but the resulting surface layer needs chemical cleaning. Mechanical methods are also capable of texturing surface layers, through processes like grinding and polishing, though some can be expensive. In comparison to these methods, specific attention is given to the economic advantage of SACE in combining machining and texturing in a single step, where other technologies offer good results as well but are complicated, expensive, or require postprocessing steps. The limitations in SACE are mainly the high possibility of tool bending in case of small tool sizes, which limits the minimum diameter of used tools to 200 µm. Furthermore, for hole depths above 300 µm and depending on the used machining mode, limited flushing and hole deformation can occur due to the continuous tool–workpiece mechanical contact.
- SACE can achieve an acceptable trade-off between surface quality and machining speed in comparison to other existing machining technologies. Chemical methods, on one hand, can produce high quality surface layers but are very slow. Thermal methods, mainly laser, can be faster than SACE but may result in surface cracks or require expensive setup. Mechanical methods can also produce good results, but the process can be expensive and the resulting surface needs polishing.
- Based on this review information was collected regarding the resulting geometries of micro-channels machined on glass using different methods mainly SACE, thermal, chemical, and mechanical methods. This information is summarized on Figure 30 that identifies the tool lateral speed versus micro-channel aspect ratio (depth per pass with respect to channel width). The figure shows that laser enables high-speed machining and can achieve high aspect ratio structures, while chemical methods result in lower aspect ratios and are very slow. Mechanical methods are mostly slower than laser and result in lower aspect ratio. SACE is slower than laser but much faster compared to chemical methods. It results in higher aspect ratio channels compared to most mechanical methods at similar machining speeds. All these findings agree with graphs plotted earlier in the literature for glass micro-hole drilling. However, there is some difference in trends observed for micro-holes and channels machined with SACE versus mechanical methods. While for micro-hole drilling SACE is faster than mechanical methods for similar aspect ratios achieved, for micro-channel machining mechanical methods can be faster than SACE for certain aspect ratios. This can be explained by the fact that for micro-hole drilling the temperature is not dissipated as fast as for micro-channel machining, as the last flushing is better accomplished.
- Future research can further investigate the effects of the tool-electrode properties (geometry, material, rotation, vibration, tilting angle) and electrolyte characteristics (material, concentration, magnetic orientation, vibrations, pressurized injection, etc.) on the process stability and resulting surface quality. Establishing aspect ratios higher than 12, faster machining speed, higher surface quality, deeper holes with reduced overcut, and micro-channels with high depth to width ratio are examples of areas that need attention. These improvements can be established by using novel tool end geometries, controlling the flow of electrolyte (pressurized injection), and applying complex tool motion algorithms. Moreover, a deeper look into SACE surface functionalization capabilities might reveal possible promising results that are not yet explored whether from the aspect of chemical or physical modification of the machined surfaces.
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
SACE | Spark-Assisted Chemical Engraving |
ECDM | Electrochemical Discharge Machining |
MEMS | Microelectromechanical system |
HAZ | Heat-affected zones |
MRR | Material Removal Rate |
DR | Duty Ratio |
DC | Direct Current |
SDS | Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate Surfactant |
NaOH | Sodium Hydroxide |
KOH | Potassium Hydroxide |
NaNO3 | Sodium Nitrate |
NaCl | Sodium Chloride |
Appendix A
Depth (µm) | Entrance Width (µm) | Depth to Width Ratio * | Speed Rate (µm/s) | References | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chemical Methods | |||||
Deep Wet Etching | 33 | 7 | 4.7 | 0.0038 | [144] |
Wet Etching | 329 | 420 | 0.78 | 0.133 | [145] |
Wet Etching | 20 | 220 | 0.09 | 0.085 | [146] |
Deep Wet Etching | 60 | 250 | 0.24 | 0.0167 | [147] |
Wet Etching | 150 | 30 | 5 | 0.027 | [148] |
Deep Reactive Ion Etching | 250 | 600 | 0.42 | 0.008 | [149] |
Wet Etching | 102 | 500 | 0.204 | 0.054 | [150] |
Wet Etching | 70 | 12 | 5.8 | 0.011 | [151] |
Wet Etching | 45 | 100 | 0.45 | 0.167 | [152] |
Reactive Ion Etching | 47 | 120 | 0.4 | 0.0057 | [153] |
Reactive Ion Etching | 4.5 | 39 | 0.1 | 0.0019 | [154] |
Wet Etching | 150 | 30 | 5 | 0.03 | [155] |
Thermal Methods | |||||
CO2 Laser | 1561.2 | 305.75 | 5 | 5000 | [156] |
LIPAA | 200 | 87 | 2.3 | 800000 | [134] |
IR femtosecond laser | 30 | 30 | 1 | 1000000 | [116] |
SLE | 35 | 2 | 17.5 | 200000 | [120] |
Nd: YVO4 Laser | 11 | 8 | 1.375 | 50000 | [157] |
Nd: YAG laser | 958 | 200 | 4.79 | 55800 | [158] |
Picosecond (PS) Laser | 762 | 72 | 10 | 75000 | [139] |
NIR femtosecond Laser | 69 | 26 | 2.65 | 5000 | [115] |
LIBWE | 525 | 24 | 21.88 | 150000 | [159] |
Fiber Laser | 373.15 | 395.28 | 0.94 | 7000 | [160] |
Mechanical Methods | |||||
Rotary Micro-Ultrasonic | 10 | 600 | 0.0167 | 333 | [161] |
Micro-Ultrasonic | 79.167 | 695 | 0.11 | 422.5 | [162] |
Micro-Ultrasonic | 170 | 375 | 0.4 | 62.6 | [163] |
Powder Blasting | 310 | 700 | 0.4 | 400 | [164] |
Powder Blasting | 9.98 | 318.3 | 0.03 | 100000 | [165] |
Rotary Micro-Ultrasonic | 12.5 | 500 | 0.025 | 8.33 | [166] |
Rotary Micro-Ultrasonic | 100 | 800 | 0.125 | 16.67 | [167] |
Ball End Milling | 20 | 175 | 0.1 | 8 | [168] |
Hybrid Methods | |||||
SACE | 256 | 520 | 0.5 | 10 | [67] |
SACE | 135 | 510 | 0.3 | 200 | [44] |
SACE | 118 | 478.4 | 0.2 | 16.67 | [169] |
SACE | 240 | 800 | 0.3 | 25 | [170] |
SACE | 100 | 300 | 0.33 | 25 | [171] |
SACE | 130 | 129.4 | 1 | 2 | [172] |
SACE | 150 | 135.9 | 1.1 | 2 | [172] |
SACE | 260 | 500 | 0.52 | 10 | [118] |
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c (wt%) | d (mm) | l (mm) | |
---|---|---|---|
10 | 0.5 | 1 | 0.47 |
10 | 0.5 | 2 | 0.89 |
10 | 1 | 1 | 1.04 |
10 | 1 | 2 | 1.88 |
20 | 0.5 | 1 | 0.52 |
20 | 0.5 | 2 | 0.98 |
20 | 1 | 1 | 1.15 |
20 | 1 | 2 | 2.07 |
30 | 0.5 | 1 | 0.59 |
30 | 0.5 | 2 | 1.11 |
30 | 1 | 1 | 1.3 |
30 | 1 | 2 | 2.35 |
40 | 0.5 | 1 | 0.67 |
40 | 0.5 | 2 | 1.26 |
40 | 1 | 1 | 1.49 |
40 | 1 | 2 | 2.68 |
Parameters | Optimum Values | Extreme Values |
---|---|---|
Concentrations | 0.5 M | 4 M |
Level of electrolyte | 1 cm | 4 cm |
Distance between electrodes | 4 cm | 1 cm |
Time of machining | 0.5 min | 3 min |
Type of Process Improvement | Tool Diameter (µm) | Reference |
---|---|---|
(a) Side-insulated tool-lectrode | 200 | [60] |
(b) Mixing graphite powder to 30 wt% NaOH | 200 | [81] |
(c) Using textured stainless-steel tools | 400 | [44] |
(d) Magnetic field orientation in 15 wt% NaOH at 35 V | 500 | [85] |
(e) Addition of SDS to 25 wt% NaOH at 35 V | 500 | [118] |
(f) Applying 30 rpm rotation speed at 40 V in 20 wt% NaCl | 300 | [37] |
(g) Adding SiC abrasives to KOH in WECDM | 250 | [83] |
(h) Adding SiC abrasives + flow of titrated 5 M KOH electrolyte | 150 | [84] |
(i) Spherical-end tool-electrode | 150 | [93] |
(j) Ultrasonic vibrated electrolyte + Side-insulated tool | 200 | [35] |
(k) Flat-sidewall-flat tool (thickness 100 µm) at 500 rpm | 200 | [36] |
(l) Adding SiC powder to titrated 5 M KOH electrolyte | 150 | [84] |
(m) Rotating the workpiece at 30 rpm | 300 | [37] |
(n) Mixed electrolyte (1/2 NaOH, 1/2 KOH) | 500 | [67] |
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Bassyouni, Z.; Abou Ziki, J.D. The Capabilities of Spark-Assisted Chemical Engraving: A Review. J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2020, 4, 99. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp4040099
Bassyouni Z, Abou Ziki JD. The Capabilities of Spark-Assisted Chemical Engraving: A Review. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing. 2020; 4(4):99. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp4040099
Chicago/Turabian StyleBassyouni, Zahraa, and Jana D. Abou Ziki. 2020. "The Capabilities of Spark-Assisted Chemical Engraving: A Review" Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing 4, no. 4: 99. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp4040099