Impacts of Agricultural Practices on Mountain Biodiversity ^†

Abstract

This paper investigates how agricultural practices impact mountain biodiversity. Within the PROMONT project this has been realized across six ADRION pilot areas. By combining species surveys, land-use mapping, and stakeholder input, PROMONT identifies how intensification, agrochemical use, and abandonment threaten ecological integrity. Findings show that traditional agro-pastoral systems support biodiversity, while modern intensification leads to habitat loss and species decline. Agroecological practices, such as organic farming and landscape heterogeneity, offer viable pathways for sustainable coexistence. The study proposes a replicable assessment methodology and recommends integrating biodiversity objectives into agricultural policy, promoting knowledge transfer, and supporting conservation-friendly farming to enhance ecological resilience in mountain environments.

1. Introduction

Mountain ecosystems represent biologically diverse landscapes. Such ecosystems host a high number of endemic plant and animal species and provide essential ecosystem services, including water regulation, carbon sequestration, and cultural heritage. However, these mountainous areas are increasingly under pressure from various anthropogenic factors, among which unsustainable agricultural practices are prominent. Traditional low-intensity farming systems, once in balance with natural ecosystems, are being rapidly replaced by intensive monocultures, increased agrochemical input, and land abandonment followed by rewilding [1,2,3,4]. These transformations are causing significant changes in species composition, soil quality, and landscape heterogeneity, directly impacting biodiversity at both local and regional scales [5,6].

The PROMONT (Protection and RegeneratiOn of MOuNTains) project [7], co-financed under the Interreg IPA ADRION programme, addresses these environmental challenges through a transnational approach. The project brings together six (6) pilot sites across the ADRION region, including Greece, Italy, Slovenia, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro. Within the framework of the PROMONT project, a comprehensive methodological framework has been developed to assess the state of biodiversity and the pressures exerted by agricultural practices. This paper focuses specifically on the impacts of agricultural production identified through PROMONT activities and provides insights into the interplay between farming systems and biodiversity in mountainous environments.

The literature increasingly points to agriculture as a double-edged sword in biodiversity dynamics. On one hand, traditional agroecosystems may support high biodiversity, serving as semi-natural habitats for numerous species. On the other hand, modern agricultural intensification contributes to habitat destruction, pollution, and ecological homogenization. This study builds on existing frameworks by integrating field-based ecological data, remote sensing, and stakeholder consultation, enabling a robust transnational understanding of agricultural impacts on biodiversity [8,9,10,11].

2. Methods

The methodology within PROMONT project is designed in a way to ensure consistency across geographically and culturally distinct pilot regions. Each site follows a shared protocol involving (i) identification of key plant, tree, and animal species; (ii) classification of habitats and land uses; (iii) documentation of agricultural practices and their spatial distribution; and (iv) participatory stakeholder workshops with local farmers, ecologists, and decision-makers.

Within PROMONT project, species have been selected using a criteria-based approach that prioritized endemism, conservation status (e.g., IUCN Red List, Natura 2000 listings), and sensitivity to land use. A long list of species has been catalogued across the pilot areas. Data for each species includes ecosystem type, known threats, reproductive and phenological characteristics, and preferred habitat conditions. Special attention is given to species with direct interactions with agricultural landscapes, such as pollinators, ground-nesting birds, and ruderal flora.

Table 1. Plants’ database.

Habitat	Main Climates of Europe	Climate Classification by Koppen-Geiger	European Heating Index (EHI)	European Cooling Index (ECI)	Ecosystem Type	Biogeographical Region	Threats	Assessment Information	Geographic Range
Dry meadows	Subtropical Continental	Cfb	60	20	Arctic, alpine, subalpine	Alpine	Agrochemicals	Not Evaluated	Mt. Olympus
Edges of woodlands	Subtropical Intermediate	Csa	70	40	Broad leaved deciduous & evergreen woodland	Continental	Climate change	Data Deficient	Mt. Baldo, Provinces of Trento and Verona
Grassland	Subtropical Maritime	Dfb	80	60	Coniferous & broad leaved evergreen woodland	Mediterranean	Collected as an edible plant	Least concern	Mt. Tomori
Limestone rocks	Temperate Continental	Dfc	90	80	Grasslands		Cutting by tourists	Near threatened	Mt. Snežnik
Nutrient-poor grasslands	Temperate Intermediate		100	100	Heathland scrub		Grazing	Vulnerable	Mt. Andrijevica
Rocky slopes			110	120	Mediterranean-mountain		It is collected as a medicinal plant.	Endangered	Mt. Žaba
Rocky steppes			120	140	Mixed deciduous & coniferous woodland		Limited population	Critically endangered
Subalpine meadows			130		Tundra		Opening and use of the road network	Extinct in the wild
Other, explain			140		Wetlands-mires		Other, explain
							Ski sports activities
							Small geographical spread
							Soil removal
							Tourist trampling

,

Table 2. Trees’ database.

Habitat	Main Climates of Europe	Climate Classification by Koppen-Geiger	European Heating Index (EHI)	European Cooling Index (ECI)	Ecosystem Type	Biogeographical Region	Threats	Assessment Information	Geographic Range
In Mediterranean scrubland	Subtropical Continental	Cfb	60	20	Arctic, alpine, subalpine	Alpine	Agrochemicals	Not Evaluated	Mt. Olympus
Open pine forest	Subtropical Intermediate	Csa	70	40	Broad leaved deciduous & evergreen woodland	Continental	Climate change	Data Deficient	Mt. Baldo, Provinces of Trento and Verona
Other coniferous forest,	Subtropical Maritime	Dfb	80	60	Coniferous & broad leaved evergreen woodland	Mediterranean	Forest fire	Least concern	Mt. Tomori
Mediterranean sclerophyll scrubland	Temperate Continental	Dfc	90	80	Grasslands		Logging	Near threatened	Mt. Snežnik
Dry woodland with Pinus spp., Carpinus betulus, Quercus ilex and other oaks	Temperate Intermediate		100	100	Heathland scrub		Opening and use of the road network	Vulnerable	Mt. Andrijevica
In montane and wetter forest with Cedrus libani, Pinus nigra, Juniperus foetidissima, and J. Excelsa			110	120	Mediterranean-mountain		Overgrazing	Endangered	Mt. Žaba
Other, explain			120	140	Mixed deciduous & coniferous woodland		Soil removal	Critically endangered
			130		Tundra			Extinct in the wild
			140		Wetlands-mires
					Other, explain

and

Table 3. Animals’ database.

Habitat	Main Climates of Europe	Climate Classification by Koppen-Geiger	European Heating Index (EHI)	European Cooling Index (ECI)	Ecosystem Type	Threats	Assessment Information	Geographic Range
Caves	Subtropical Continental	Cfb	60	20	Arctic, alpine, subalpine	Agrochemicals	Not Evaluated	Mt. Olympus
Evergreen Mediterranean Oak forest	Subtropical Intermediate	Csa	70	40	Broad leaved deciduous & evergreen woodland	Climate change	Data Deficient	Mt. Baldo, Provinces of Trento and Verona
Forest	Subtropical Maritime	Dfb	80	60	Coniferous & broad leaved evergreen woodland	Collection for use in traditional medicine	Least concern	Mt. Tomori
Grassland	Temperate Continental	Dfc	90	80	Grasslands	Damage to beekeeping infrastructure	Near threatened	Mt. Snežnik
Mediterranean maquis	Temperate Intermediate		100	100	Heathland scrub	Genetic isolation of its populations	Vulnerable	Mt. Andrijevica
Moss			110	120	Mediterranean-mountain	Increase in the population of predators	Endangered	Mt. Žaba
Other, explain			120	140	Mixed deciduous & coniferous woodland	Isolated subpopulations	Critically endangered
Shrubland			130		Tundra	Killed inadvertently (car, train etc)	Extinct in the wild
Wetlands			140		Wetlands-mires	Killing due to aggression
						Livestock farming
						Opening and use of the road network
						Other, explain

illustrate the information collected for plants, trees and animals, respectively.

Agricultural impacts are assessed using a combination of remote sensing, GIS-based land-use mapping, and on-site surveys. Agricultural areas will be digitized and cross-referenced with biodiversity hotspots identified through species mapping. To evaluate the relationship between agriculture and biodiversity, a multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA) framework is developed (Table 1). Indicators are grouped under five thematic axes, namely (a) habitat quality, (b) agrochemical pressure, (c) landscape connectivity, (d) species sensitivity, and (e) land-use intensity. Each indicator is normalized and scored based on thresholds defined through literature benchmarks and expert inputs. These scores are scheduled to be spatially overlaid with species distributions to identify high-conflict zones and conservation opportunities.

3. Results and Discussion

The analysis from the six pilot areas reveals a complex picture of agricultural pressures on biodiversity. In traditionally cultivated regions, such as Olympus in Greece and Monte Baldo in Italy, long-standing agro-silvo-pastoral systems coexist with a relatively high level of biodiversity. These systems include terraced cultivation, rotational grazing, and mixed cropping, which promote heterogeneous landscapes and provide multiple microhabitats. However, the gradual shift towards intensive production has been associated with a decline in both species richness and abundance.

In Mount Olympus, for example, agricultural expansion has led to the conversion of semi-natural meadows and shrublands, habitats critical for native orchids, butterflies, and reptiles. Fertilizer and herbicide usage has altered soil pH and microfaunal composition, further reducing the ecological value of these lands. Field surveys documented a significant reduction in native plant cover and a notable decline in pollinator activity in intensively farmed plots compared to traditional plots.

Similar trends are observed in the Snežnik region in Slovenia, where increased maize cultivation and silage production have fragmented previously contiguous forest-pasture mosaics. This fragmentation has disrupted movement corridors for species such as Rupicapra rupicapra (chamois) and Lynx lynx (Eurasian lynx), while the homogenization of the vegetation has impacted avifaunal diversity.

Conversely, in regions experiencing agricultural abandonment, such as parts of Andrijevica (Montenegro), succession dynamics have led to dense shrub encroachment, limiting the habitat availability for grassland-dependent species. While abandonment may allow for natural regeneration in some cases, it also leads to biodiversity shifts that may not necessarily align with conservation objectives, especially when it results in the loss of open habitats.

Undoubtedly, one of the most alarming issues is the impact of agrochemical inputs. Pesticide usage is found to negatively affect soil invertebrates and aquatic macrofauna. Moreover, the loss of traditional knowledge and land management practices emerges as an underlying factor contributing to biodiversity degradation. Stakeholder consultations highlighted that younger generations are less involved in farming and unaware of low-input, biodiversity-friendly practices. In contrast, older farmers often reported using crop rotations, organic compost, and native seed varieties, although such practices are waning due to economic pressures.

Importantly, the work performed within the PROMONT project identified areas where sustainable agriculture and biodiversity protection are mutually reinforcing. Agroecological practices, such as agroforestry, intercropping, and the maintenance of hedgerows, are found to enhance both agricultural productivity and habitat quality. In most areas, farms participating in organic certification schemes show significantly higher levels of plant species diversity and insect abundance compared to conventional farms.

4. Conclusions

The PROMONT project demonstrates that agricultural activities are a pivotal factor in shaping the biodiversity of mountain ecosystems. While agriculture can be a driver of biodiversity loss, it also holds the potential to act as a conservation ally when designed and managed within an ecological framework. The common methodological framework that has been adopted within the PROMONT project has successfully established a replicable methodology for assessing these dynamics across diverse socio-ecological contexts in the ADRION region, and internationally.

Our findings suggest four key takeaways. First, intensive agricultural practices, particularly monocultures and agrochemical inputs, are major threats to biodiversity in mountain areas. Second, abandonment and land-use transitions require careful management to maintain habitat heterogeneity. Third, local ecological knowledge is an invaluable resource that should be preserved and integrated into policy frameworks. Fourth, there is a clear opportunity for aligning agricultural and conservation goals through agroecological practices and landscape planning.

In view of the European Green Deal and the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030, it is imperative to integrate biodiversity targets into agricultural policy, especially within vulnerable regions such as mountain ecosystems. PROMONT’s transnational methodology offers a scalable blueprint for regions seeking to balance agricultural development with ecological resilience. As the project progresses into its next phases, these insights will inform both local action plans and broader policy recommendations, ensuring that biodiversity and agriculture are not seen as conflicting objectives, but rather as interdependent components of a sustainable future.