Surveillance of Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infection in Preschool Child Population: Do Changes in Behavior and Immunological Responses Affect Prevalence?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Study Site and Population
2.3. Study Size and Sampling
2.4. Variables Measurement
2.5. Data Management and Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Participant Characteristics
3.2. Comparison of the Severity Levels of STH Infection in Normal Children and Stunted Children Based on Etiology
3.3. Correlation of 25(OH)D, IL-5, and IL-13 Levels with STH Infection
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
6. Study Limitations
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristic | STH Infection | p Value * | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Positive (n = 33) | Negative (n = 661) | |||
1. | Sex | 0.491 | ||
Male | 19 (57.5%) | 340 (51%) | ||
Female | 14 (42.5%) | 321 (49%) | ||
2. | Body height | 0.156 | ||
Stunted | 23 (5.7%) | 378 (94.3%) | ||
Normal | 10 (3.4%) | 283 (96.6%) | ||
3. | Mother’s education: | 0.138 | ||
Elementary school | 12 (9.2%) | 119 (90.8%) | ||
Junior high school | 12 (4.0%) | 291 (96.0%) | ||
Senior high school | 8 (3.4%) | 228 (96.6%) | ||
Bachelor’s degree | 1 (4.2%) | 23 (95.8%) | ||
4. | Father’s education: | <0.001 | ||
Elementary school | 15 (12.5%) | 105 (87.5%) | ||
Junior high school | 7 (2.4%) | 281 (97.6%) | ||
Senior high school | 9 (3.5%) | 250 (96.5%) | ||
Bachelor’s degree | 2 (7.4%) | 25 (92.6%) | ||
5. | Nutritional status: | 0.674 | ||
Severely underweight | 8 (4.3%) | 178 (95.7%) | ||
Underweight | 9 (7.3%) | 114 (92.7%) | ||
Normal | 16 (4.2%) | 366 (95.8%) | ||
Overweight | 0 | 2 (100%) | ||
Obese | 0 | 1 (100%) | ||
6. | Water sources | 0.009 | ||
Tap water | 3 (1.8%) | 164 (98.2%) | ||
Water well | 5 (3.5%) | 136 (96.5%) | ||
Water pump | 3 (3.3%) | 87 (96.7%) | ||
Water electric pump | 22 (8.4%) | 239 (91.6%) | ||
Spring water | 0 | 35 (100%) | ||
7. | Distance between water sources and toilet | 0.002 | ||
Less than 10 m | 23 (7.6%) | 280 (92.4%) | ||
More than 10 m | 10 (2.6%) | 381 (97.4%) | ||
8. | Hand washing habit | 0.580 | ||
With water only | 14 (4.3%) | 313 (95.7%) | ||
With water and soap | 19 (5.2%) | 348 (94.8%) | ||
9. | Cleanliness of toenails | 0.013 | ||
Clean | 23 (3.9%) | 566 (96.1%) | ||
Dirty | 10 (9.5%) | 95 (90.5%) |
Children Infected by Ascaris lumbricoides | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Subject | Species | Number of Eggs (epg) | Severity Levels of STH | Height per Age |
Patient 4 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 250 epg | Mild | Normal |
Patient 7 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 600 epg | Mild | Normal |
Patient 8 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 2.000 epg | Mild | Normal |
Patient 9 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 2676 epg | Mild | Normal |
Patient 3 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 3.450 epg | Mild | Normal |
Patient 5 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 22.600 epg | Moderate | Normal |
Patient 6 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 33.450 epg | Moderate | Normal |
Patient 2 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 37.250 epg | Moderate | Normal |
Patient 1 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 172.250 epg | Severe | Normal |
Patient 28 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 59 epg | Mild | Stunted |
Patient 25 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 117 epg | Mild | Stunted |
Patient 29 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 118 epg | Mild | Stunted |
Patient 22 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 147 epg | Mild | Stunted |
Patient 27 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 235 epg | Mild | Stunted |
Patient 30 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 293 epg | Mild | Stunted |
Patient 21 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 513 epg | Mild | Stunted |
Patient 17 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 700 epg | Mild | Stunted |
Patient 24 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 882 epg | Mild | Stunted |
Patient 16 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 1.450 epg | Mild | Stunted |
Patient 11 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 1.500 epg | Mild | Stunted |
Patient 18 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 2.950 epg | Mild | Stunted |
Patient 12 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 3.150 epg | Mild | Stunted |
Patient 15 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 3.850 epg | Mild | Stunted |
Patient 31 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 4.841 epg | Mild | Stunted |
Patient 14 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 6.700 epg | Moderate | Stunted |
Patient 26 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 19.450 epg | Moderate | Stunted |
Patient 23 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 25.470 epg | Moderate | Stunted |
Patient 13 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 28.500 epg | Moderate | Stunted |
Patient 19 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 53.350 epg | Severe | Stunted |
Patient 10 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 64.500 epg | Severe | Stunted |
Patient 20 | Ascaris lumbricoides | 64.550 epg | Severe | Stunted |
Variable | Group | p Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
A (n = 20) | B (n = 20) | C (n = 10) | D (n = 30) | ||
25(OH)D (ng/mL) | 28.773 (8.462) | 32.757 (12.432) | 32.128 (12.038) | 30.927 (11.248) | 0.701 |
A vs. B | 0.258 | ||||
A vs. C | 0.435 | ||||
A vs. D | 0.501 | ||||
B vs. C | 0.884 | ||||
B vs. D | 0.568 | ||||
C vs. D | 0.767 | ||||
IL-5 (pg/mL) | 60.886 (21.812–216.271) | 89.508 (25.050–199.098) | 71.575 (18.624–190.132 | 81.262 (10.867–309.279) | 0.080 |
A vs. B | 0.006 | ||||
A vs. C | 0.397 | ||||
A vs. D | 0.104 | ||||
B vs. C | 0.183 | ||||
B vs. D | 0.452 | ||||
C vs. D | 0.656 | ||||
IL-13 (pg/mL) | 5.456 (0.612–76.351) | 15.455 (0.853–386.627) | 11.839 (1.149–495.728) | 11.724 (1.637–222.731) | 0.063 |
A vs. B | 0.010 | ||||
A vs. C | 0.397 | ||||
A vs. D | 0.022 | ||||
B vs. C | 0.713 | ||||
B vs. D | 0.362 | ||||
C vs. D | 0.939 |
Characteristics | STH Infection | p Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Positive (n = 20) | Negative (n = 20) | |||
1. | Sex | 0.527 | ||
Male | 11 | 9 | ||
Female | 9 | 11 | ||
2. | Mother’s education: | 0.604 | ||
Elementary school | 6 | 9 | ||
Junior high school | 10 | 7 | ||
Senior high school | 4 | 3 | ||
Bachelor’s degree | 0 | 1 | ||
3. | Father’s Education: | 0.187 | ||
Elementary school | 10 | 4 | ||
Junior high school | 5 | 9 | ||
Senior high school | 5 | 6 | ||
Bachelor’s degree | 0 | 1 | ||
4. | Nutritional Status: | 0.618 | ||
Severely underweight | 9 | 7 | ||
Underweight | 6 | 9 | ||
Normal | 5 | 4 | ||
5. | Water sources | 0.020 | ||
Tap water | 1 | 6 | ||
Water well | 4 | 5 | ||
Water pump | 3 | 6 | ||
Water electric pump | 12 | 0 | ||
Spring water | 0 | 3 | ||
6. | Distance between water sources and toilet | 0.011 | ||
Less than 10 me | 14 | 6 | ||
More than 10 m | 6 | 14 | ||
7. | Hand-washing habits | 0.744 | ||
With water only | 7 | 8 | ||
With water and soap | 13 | 12 | ||
8. | Cleanliness of toenails | 0.525 | ||
Clean | 12 | 10 | ||
Dirty | 8 | 10 |
Variable | Cut-Off Point | AUROC (95% CI) |
---|---|---|
25(OH)D (ng/mL) | ≤42.202 | 0.605 (0.438–0.756) |
IL-5 (pg/mL) | ≤62.774 | 0.750 (0.588–0.873) |
IL-13 (pg/mL) | ≤6.708 | 0.735 (0.572–0.862) |
Variable | STH Infection | p Value * | OR (95% CI) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Negative (n = 20) | Positive (n = 20) | |||
25(OH)D (ng/mL) | 0.020 ** | - | ||
≤42.202 | 20 | 14 | ||
>42.202 | 0 | 6 | ||
IL-5 (pg/mL) | 0.008 | 6.93 (1.53–31.38) | ||
≤62.774 | 11 | 3 | ||
>62.774 | 9 | 17 | ||
IL-13 (pg/mL) | <0.001 | 16.71 (2.98–93.88) | ||
≤6.708 | 13 | 2 | ||
>6.708 | 7 | 19 |
Variable | Coef B | SE (B) | p Value | ORadj (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|
IL-5 (≤62.774) | 2.239 | 1.287 | 0.041 | 9.38 (1.13–77.88) |
IL-13 (≤6.708) | 3.166 | 1.290 | 0.007 | 23.71 (2.84–197.94) |
Distance between water sources with toilet (<10 m) | 2.380 | 1.173 | 1.173 | 10.81 (1.57–74.40) |
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Adrizain, R.; Nagari, M.V.; Sukandar, H.; Berbudi, A.; Setiabudi, D.; Setiabudiawan, B. Surveillance of Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infection in Preschool Child Population: Do Changes in Behavior and Immunological Responses Affect Prevalence? Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2024, 9, 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed9020033
Adrizain R, Nagari MV, Sukandar H, Berbudi A, Setiabudi D, Setiabudiawan B. Surveillance of Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infection in Preschool Child Population: Do Changes in Behavior and Immunological Responses Affect Prevalence? Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease. 2024; 9(2):33. https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed9020033
Chicago/Turabian StyleAdrizain, Riyadi, Monika Verena Nagari, Hadyana Sukandar, Afiat Berbudi, Djatnika Setiabudi, and Budi Setiabudiawan. 2024. "Surveillance of Soil-Transmitted Helminth Infection in Preschool Child Population: Do Changes in Behavior and Immunological Responses Affect Prevalence?" Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease 9, no. 2: 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed9020033