Sustainable Tourism Practices and Challenges in the Santurbán Moorland, a Natural Reserve in Colombia

Abstract

The sustainable management of natural reserves is increasingly prioritized within the global tourism sector, especially in fragile ecosystems like the Santurbán Moorland in Colombia. As a high-altitude Andean ecosystem providing essential water resources, the Santurbán Moorland faces mounting pressures from tourism growth and mining activity. This study assesses the adoption of sustainable tourism practices among tourism service providers (TSPs) in the region and identifies key gaps to inform policy and academic interventions. A cross-sectional, mixed-methods approach was applied, integrating surveys based on the European Tourism Indicators System (ETIS) and the Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) criteria, as well as structured interviews, field observations, and document analysis. Confirmatory factor analysis identified “sustainable management” as the most robust dimension (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.953); however, no TSPs reported using renewable energy, and less than 5% of employees had received formal training in tourism. The main challenges include the lack of environmental certification, insufficient infrastructure, and limited communication of sustainability practices. Based on these findings, the study proposes targeted public policies, financial incentives, and specialized academic training to strengthen sustainable practices. The results offer insights into the challenges faced by emerging ecotourism destinations and provide strategic guidelines to support a balance between environmental conservation and local socioeconomic development.

1. Introduction

Colombia’s tourism sector has experienced remarkable growth in recent years, with a 17.6% increase in tourist arrivals in April 2023 compared to 2019, reaching 415,993 visitors [1]. This resurgence reflects a return to pre-pandemic levels, largely driven by Colombia’s exceptional biodiversity, ranking it among the top five countries worldwide in biological diversity [2].

Within Colombia, the Santander department has emerged as a key ecotourism destination, particularly due to the Santurbán Moorland, a fragile ecosystem critical for water regulation and rich in unique flora and fauna [3]. The area has witnessed simultaneous growth in ecotourism, agritourism, mining, and agriculture [4,5], aligning with the national tourism industry’s expansion, where domestic tourism spending increased by 42.3% in 2022, reaching approximately USD 3.5 billion [6]. Despite these opportunities, balancing economic development and ecological conservation presents significant challenges. Local stakeholders, including hotels, hostels, tourist homes, travel agencies, and communities, are increasingly leveraging the Santurbán Moorland’s natural assets for tourism but without clear sustainability strategies [7].

Responsible ecotourism can stimulate economic growth, create employment, and promote cultural exchange [8]. As highlighted by Ismail et al. [9], tourism can generate increased income and cultural enrichment. However, its potential downsides, including environmental degradation, social disruption, and excessive commercialization of local culture, must not be overlooked [10]. Sustainable tourism requires a careful assessment of these externalities [11].

Within this framework, the development of training and educational programs plays a crucial role in improving service quality within protected areas. Examples such as the Galápagos Islands and Sumaco National Park in Ecuador demonstrate the need to promote sustainable practices that ensure the preservation of these destinations and prevent their degradation. However, it is important to recognize that in many developing countries, domestic tourists often show limited interest in sustainability issues [12]. This lack of awareness can impede the adoption of sustainable practices by tourism service providers, potentially undermining the long-term viability of ecotourism efforts [13].

Since the 1990s, extensive academic research on sustainable tourism has emerged as a response to the negative impacts of mass tourism [14]. Conventional tourism models often prioritize economic benefits derived from interactions between tourism providers, local businesses, residents, and visitors while neglecting social and environmental aspects [15]. This approach can lead to over-tourism, characterized by unsustainable practices that disrupt the socio-cultural identity of local communities and threaten local businesses and services. In natural environments, over-tourism can significantly reduce biodiversity and degrade ecosystems [15]. For instance, as Liu [16] reports, tourism in China has left a substantial ecological footprint, particularly in terms of carbon emissions and resource consumption. Mitigating this impact is crucial for promoting sustainable tourism.

Recent literature, as highlighted by Martínez-Rubio et al. [17], also emphasizes the potential of green technologies to foster environmentally responsible practices in the tourism sector. These innovations have the potential to minimize energy and water usage, decrease greenhouse gas emissions, and enhance air quality. Additionally, they can generate long-term financial savings, attract environmentally conscious guests, and enhance a hotel’s reputation. However, in the Santurbán region, the absence of a coordinated environmental management plan (EMP), along with the limited environmental awareness among many tourism service providers (TSPs), represents a significant barrier to implementing sustainable tourism practices. These institutional and educational gaps must be addressed to advance effective environmental strategies in the region.

The objectives of this research, based on the framework proposed by Gibson [18], are to evaluate the sustainability of tourism service providers (TSPs) in areas influenced by the Santurbán Moorland, based on the Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) criteria, and to identify gaps and opportunities for strengthening sustainable practices among TSPs by comparing their practices against international sustainability standards.

The findings of this study could benefit TSPs in the Santurbán Moorland region by promoting more sustainable tourism practices. The insights provided can assist TSPs in identifying areas for improvement and developing strategies to achieve sustainability. Furthermore, the study may offer guidance to government entities and other stakeholders in the region in crafting policies and programs that support sustainable tourism. Such programs could include financial incentives or recognition for TSPs that adopt sustainable practices, as well as educational initiatives to raise awareness of the importance of sustainability in tourism.

2. Background and Theoretical Framework

Sustainable tourism (ST) has been the focus of extensive debate regarding its concept and adoption over the past three decades [15]. The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) defines ST as “tourism that considers its economic, social, and environmental impacts both now and in the future, and addresses the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment, and host communities” (UNWTO, n.d.). This definition provides a foundational framework for understanding and advancing ST on a global scale.

At its core, ST embodies a commitment to minimizing the environmental impact of tourism activities while preserving local cultural heritage [19,20]. It fosters a heightened awareness of the importance of conserving natural environments and encourages respectful interactions with local cultures and traditions. In doing so, ST contributes to the creation of employment opportunities and the improvement of quality of life for local populations [21]. As ref. [22] highlights, ST plays a critical role in promoting sustainable growth within the global tourism industry by addressing both environmental and socioeconomic impacts in the short and long term. This approach emphasizes the protection of natural resources and the preservation of community traditions [23].

In Colombia, sustainable tourism has become a national priority. Sectoral technical standards (NTS) and ICONTEC certification programs guide tourism service providers (TSPs) to enhance environmental, cultural, and economic sustainability. These mechanisms improve competitiveness and promote consumer trust through practices such as renewable energy adoption and support for local culture [24,25].

Empirical evidence supports the positive outcomes of adopting sustainable tourism standards, including tourist satisfaction and destination loyalty [26,27]. Despite these benefits, many TSPs struggle with implementation due to limited awareness and training.

2.1. Theoretical Framework for Sustainable Tourism: Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) Criteria

The Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) criteria offer a global framework structured around four pillars: planning for sustainability, socioeconomic contribution, cultural heritage protection, and environmental responsibility [28]. These criteria are applied across various tourism businesses, helping to assess sustainability performance and guide policy development [29].

Management of sustainable tourism practices is especially critical in protected areas, where it balances conservation with community development [30]. The integration of green and sustainable practices into tourism planning and management enhances the long-term viability and success of tourism destinations [31], while the concept of smart destinations supports sustainability and resilience through participatory governance and innovation [32]. These principles are reflected in the Global Sustainable Tourism Council criteria, summarized in

Table 1. Synthesis of the main criteria for sustainable tourism.

Criteria	Description
Sustainable Management System	Implementation of a sustainable management system covering environmental, social, cultural, economic, quality, human rights, health, safety, security, and risk and crisis management.
Legal Compliance	Adherence to local, national, and international legislation and regulations.
Sustainability policy reporting and communication	Communication of sustainability policies, actions, and performance to stakeholders.
Staff Commitment	Staff commitment to the sustainable management system and regular training.
Customer Experience	Measures to ensure customer satisfaction in relation to sustainability.
Accurate promotion	Use of accurate and transparent promotional materials and marketing communications.
Construction and Infrastructure	Consideration of aspects related to planning, design, construction, and operation of buildings and infrastructure.
Property rights and freshwater	Compliance with legal requirements and respect for community and indigenous rights in the acquisition of property and water rights.
Information and interpretation	Providing information and interpretation of the natural environment, local culture, and cultural heritage, along with promoting appropriate behavior during the visit.
Commitment to Destiny	Participation in the planning and sustainable management of the tourism destination.
Local Employment	Providing equal employment and professional development opportunities for residents.
Local Consumption	Priority to local and fair-trade suppliers in the acquisition of products and services.
Local Entrepreneurs	Support local entrepreneurs in the sale of sustainable products and services.
Exploitation and harassment	Implementation of policies against exploitation and harassment, especially of vulnerable groups.
Equal opportunity	Offering equal employment opportunities without discrimination.

.

The indicators presented in Table 1 provide an operational framework that facilitates the monitoring and continuous improvement of sustainability practices, addressing environmental, socio-cultural, and economic dimensions essential for responsible tourism development.

Sustainable Tourism and Protected Areas Criteria

Sustainable tourism criteria offer a robust framework that guides tourism service providers (TSPs) in implementing responsible practices within protected areas like the Santurbán Moorland. In the Santurbán Moorland’s area of influence, the tourism sector includes a limited number of providers such as inns, hotels, hostels, restaurants, travel agencies, and local guides known as “baqueanos” [33]. These criteria cover a broad spectrum of practices, from sustainable management of operations to supporting local communities and effectively promoting services. By adopting and adhering to these criteria, tourism providers demonstrate a commitment to preserve the area’s natural and cultural heritage while ensuring that tourism activities benefit both the destination and its inhabitants. Such efforts are crucial for the protection and maintenance of these unique environments, ensuring that future generations can also appreciate their value [34].

These criteria have been instrumental in evaluating current sustainable tourism practices in the Santurbán Moorland region, serving as essential input for the ongoing study of sustainability within the area. Consequently, the present study applies the Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) criteria framework to assess the sustainability performance of tourism service providers (TSPs) operating in the Santurbán Moorland, aiming to identify key strengths, gaps, and opportunities for sustainable development.

3. Methodology

3.1. Study Area and Data Collection

The Santurbán Moorland encompasses 140,000 hectares within the Norte de Santander and Santander departments. A territorial analysis reveals that 68% of the moorland (95,200 hectares) is situated in Norte de Santander, with the remaining 32% (45,500 hectares) located in Santander [35]. This study focuses on municipalities within the Santander region of the moorland, specifically those experiencing conflict related to mining activities: California, Vetas, Suratá, Tona, and Matanza. This area is characterized by tension between environmental advocates (concerned with water protection in Bucaramanga, the capital of Santander) and mining associations, attracting significant media attention [36,37]. The region also draws tourism from the Bucaramanga metropolitan area, with visitors frequently undertaking weekend trips to the lagoon complexes.

Páramos, which are high mountain Andean ecosystems characterized by herbaceous vegetation, moss, and frailejones, are critical to Colombia’s ecological landscape. Colombia contains nearly half of the world’s páramo ecosystems [38]. These ecosystems play a vital role as headwaters for the country’s major rivers, including the Magdalena, the largest river in Colombia, which originates in the Páramo de las Papas, and the Cauca, which starts in the Colombian massif at an altitude of 3200 m within the páramo zone. These páramos provide water for 70% of Colombia’s population, supporting human consumption and agricultural irrigation [39,40].

The Santurbán Moorland, located in northeastern Colombia and spanning the departments of Santander and Norte de Santander (Figure 1), is particularly crucial. It sustains the water supply and ecological services for more than two million people. However, the páramo faces significant environmental threats from climate change and exploitative activities such as mining and agriculture, which disrupt its delicate ecological balance. A socio-environmental conflict over land use has also arisen, driven by the competing interests of environmental advocates and local communities dependent on mining, especially in municipalities like Vetas and California [41]. This conflict has led to political and social divides, where water and ecology defenders clash with those advocating for economic livelihoods through mining [5]. While some victories for environmental protection have been achieved, the ongoing fight to safeguard the páramo and its water resources continues [42].

The Santurbán Moorland is home to exceptional biodiversity, featuring 456 plant and wildlife species, 26 crystalline lagoons, and a significant capacity for water regulation [43]. This ecosystem is essential for over 2.5 million people across 68 municipalities in the Santander region, providing them with water and offering natural recreational opportunities [44].

With its natural wealth, ecotourism has emerged as a promising development avenue in the Santurbán Moorland. Landowners along the routes to the lagoons have begun accepting tourists, often charging entrance fees without ensuring that they are accompanied by certified guides or promoting responsible tourism. Unfortunately, the influx of unregulated visitors has caused environmental degradation. In the “Cunta” lagoon complex, local farmers have reported waste and damage caused by tourists, negatively affecting the fragile ecosystem.

Given these challenges, there is a pressing need to implement an environmental management plan that incorporates environmentally friendly practices. Such a plan would regulate the carrying capacity of the páramo and promote sustainability across the entire tourism value chain. By doing so, ecotourism in the Santurbán Moorland could contribute to the preservation of this critical ecosystem while providing economic benefits to local communities. These efforts would ensure that the Santurbán Moorland’s natural resources are protected for future generations, while also enhancing the livelihoods of those who depend on the páramo.

Colombia’s economic growth has long been driven by the exploitation of its non-renewable resources, particularly in the mining sector. In 2022, crude oil (27.8%), coal (21.6%), and gold (5.7%) were the primary sources of foreign exchange for the country, contributing 11.4% and 7.5% to the GDP, respectively (MINCIT, 2023). The rise in international gold prices has further incentivized government efforts to attract foreign investment in mining projects [45]. With an estimated reserve of 9 million ounces of gold, the Santurbán Moorland has become a focal point for multinational companies seeking large-scale mining operations [46]. These types of operations, common in high-altitude mining regions such as the Santurbán Moorland, involve extracting approximately 7000 tons of rock per day and utilizing large-scale explosives—activities that pose significant environmental risks to ecosystems that supply up to 70% of Colombia’s water.

The push for mining in the Santurbán Moorland has sparked strong opposition from local communities and environmentalists, leading to legal challenges against mining licenses. In 2017, Colombia’s Constitutional Court issued Ruling T-361, which annulled the existing delimitation of the Santurbán páramo due to the lack of community participation in the regulatory framework. The Court mandated that the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development stop the delineation process until affected communities were adequately informed and consulted [37].

The Santurbán Moorland, as a fragile and ecologically vital ecosystem, faces critical challenges in balancing gold exploration with the need for conservation and sustainable development through tourism. Environmental defenders have raised concerns about the detrimental effects that large-scale mining and uncontrolled tourism could have on the páramo [41]. Ecotourism and agrotourism, driven by the area’s remarkable landscapes, lagoons, and unique climate, further complicate this balance. Without effective regulation that aligns with the basic principles of sustainable tourism, both mining and tourism could harm this strategic ecosystem.

The Santurbán Moorland, with its vast Andean ecosystem, presents immense potential for development and conservation. Realizing this potential requires an integrated approach that addresses the social, economic, and environmental dimensions of tourism practices. Tourism service providers (TSPs) are key players in this process and need support from the government through a strong legal framework [47]. Despite the challenges posed by mining and unregulated tourism, nature-based tourism in the Santurbán Moorland offers a promising pathway for sustainable development, fostering environmentally responsible behaviors and enhancing the well-being of visitors.

Sustainable tourism (ST) in the Santurbán Moorland can generate substantial socioeconomic benefits, including job creation and increased income for local communities [48]. A well-designed sustainable tourism model can maximize these benefits while minimizing negative environmental impacts, thereby preserving the natural beauty and ecological function of the páramo. Integrated management strategies are essential to address the adverse effects of climate change and biodiversity loss, ensuring the long-term viability of the ecosystem [49].

Sustainable certification, particularly in the hospitality sector, plays a critical role in driving socioeconomic benefits for local communities [39]. This supports the hypothesis that socioeconomic criteria are positively correlated with the success of a sustainable tourism model [50]. Achieving a balance between tourism and conservation in the Santurbán Moorland will require coordinated efforts from both TSPs and the government, along with voluntary sustainability practices and multidisciplinary management approaches.

This study employed a mixed-methods approach. Four datasets were collected using surveys as the primary instrument, supplemented by structured interviews with tourism service providers (TSPs) [51,52]. This approach aimed to identify behaviors and measures related to sustainable tourism practices. Direct observations of practices were also conducted, and secondary data were gathered from relevant literature on sustainable tourism in databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, and Dimensions [53,54].

3.2. Survey Development

The survey instrument was developed following a literature review concerning management of sustainable practices in tourism, with the European Tourism Indicators System (ETIS) serving as the reference framework [55,56,57]. ETIS indicators, refined from data collected in various European destinations, measure sustainability’s environmental, socio-cultural, and economic dimensions, aligning with international standards advocated by the Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) [58]. ETIS is considered a reliable and adaptable evaluation tool, providing qualitative and quantitative data [59], and it offers flexibility to be applied in different contexts beyond Europe, as it allows destinations to select indicators based on their specific needs (European Commission, 2016) [60,61,62].

Adhering to World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) recommendations [63] regarding indicator selection, an analysis of the 27 core and 40 optional indicators of ETIS and GSTC was conducted. This analysis resulted in selecting 36 indicators, structured as closed-ended questions, which were designed to evaluate destination sustainability [64,65]. The questionnaire was administered in person during visits to the tourism service providers’ establishments. The respondents completed the survey directly on a mobile device using a Google Forms platform. Participation was voluntary, and informed consent was obtained before answering.

3.3. Interviews and Observations

Structured interviews were conducted on site at lodging establishments. While one team member conducted the interview, other researchers, with the interviewees’ consent, explored the facilities and engaged in informal dialogs to gather further information on sustainable practices. The interviews were guided by the same sustainability dimensions evaluated in the survey: sustainable management, conservation and biodiversity protection, social responsibility, and waste reduction. This data collection was enriched by direct observations [66].

3.4. Documentary Analysis

A comprehensive documentary analysis was undertaken to complement the primary data. This analysis included governmental sources related to tourism development in Santander, focusing on the five municipalities under study. Scientific literature addressing sustainable practices in the Santurbán region was also reviewed. It is important to note that much of the available documentation centered on mining, the dominant economic activity in these areas [67,68], with limited information specifically addressing sustainable tourism practices.

3.5. Sample Selection

The database of TSPs was refined to include only those located in the municipalities of California, Vetas, Suratá, Tona, and Matanza, all within the Santander department. The study focused on TSPs engaged in commercial activities related to lodging (inns, hotels, hostels) and travel agencies (tour operators). This process identified 54 service providers meeting the study criteria, with their distribution across municipalities summarized in

Table 2. Participating tourism service providers.

Type	California	Vetas	Suratá	Matanza	Tona
Hotel	4	-	-	2	5
Hostel	1	2	1	2	7
Tourist housing	1	2	1	3	5
Rural Lodging	-	-	3	-	3
Travel Agency	2	5	3	1	1
Total	8	9	8	8	21

.

3.6. Statistical Analysis

To ensure methodological rigor, the study adopted widely validated statistical methods commonly used in tourism sustainability research. Although the tools and formulas employed are standard, they are explicitly included to ensure analytical transparency, facilitate replicability, and support a robust evaluation of latent factors, model stability, and internal consistency. The statistical analysis was conducted using a Python 3.12.1 script that integrated sci-kit-learn, pandas, and Scipy libraries [69,70], allowing for a systematic and replicable assessment of the sustainability practices among tourism service providers (TSPs) in the Santurbán Moorland. This approach allowed for the systematic and replicable evaluation of latent factors, internal consistency, model stability, and data distribution.

An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was initially performed using the principal axis factoring method [71,72]. Prior to this analysis, the variables were standardized to ensure uniform variance, applying the following equation:

$$Z_i={\displaystyle \frac{X_i-\mathsf{\mu }}{\mathsf{\sigma }}}$$

(1)

where $Z_i$ represents the standardized value, $X_i$ is the original value of the variable, μ is the mean, and σ is the standard deviation. Within the EFA context, factors with eigenvalues greater than 1 were considered relevant, and factor loadings greater than 0.4 were defined as significant [73].

The internal consistency of the identified factors was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, which measures the average correlation among the variables grouped within a factor. This coefficient was calculated using the following equation:

$$\alpha ={\displaystyle \frac{N}{N-1}}\left(1-{\displaystyle \frac{{\sum }_{i=1}^N{S}_i^2}{S_T^2}}\right)$$

(2)

where $N$ is the number of variables in the factor, $S_i^2$ is the variance of each variable, and $S_T^2$ is the total variance. Values of $\alpha$ between 0.7 and 0.95 were considered acceptable to ensure the internal consistency of the factors [74,75].

The stability of the factor loadings was validated using the Bootstrap resampling method with 200 iterations. Confidence intervals at 95% were calculated using the following equation:

$$I{C}_{95\%}=\left[\widehat{\mathrm{x}}-1.96\cdot SE,\widehat{\mathrm{x}}+1.96\cdot SE\right]$$

(3)

where $\widehat{\mathrm{x}}$ corresponds to the average factor loading and $SE$ refers to the associated standard error. Narrow intervals within this range reflected the stability and robustness of the factor loadings [76].

Skewness and kurtosis measures were also calculated to assess the distribution of the analyzed variables, applying the following equations:

$$\mathrm{Skewness}={\displaystyle \frac{n}{\left(n-1\right)\left(n-2\right)}}\sum _{i=1}^n{\left({\displaystyle \frac{X_i-\mathsf{\mu }}{\mathsf{\sigma }}}\right)}^3$$

(4)

$$\mathrm{Kurtosis}={\displaystyle \frac{n\left(n+1\right)}{\left(n-1\right)\left(n-2\right)\left(n-3\right)}}\sum _{i=1}^n{\left({\displaystyle \frac{X_i-\mathsf{\mu }}{\mathsf{\sigma }}}\right)}^4-{\displaystyle \frac{3{\left(n-1\right)}^2}{\left(n-2\right)\left(n-3\right)}}$$

(5)

Values between −1 and 1 for both metrics were indicative of normal distributions, which is a key assumption for factor analyses [77].

Finally, model validation was performed by evaluating fit indices. The RMSEA (root mean square error of approximation) was calculated using the following equation:

$$\mathrm{RMSEA}=\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{{\mathsf{\chi }}^2-df}{n\cdot df}}}$$

(6)

where ${\mathsf{\chi }}^2$ represents the chi-square statistic of the model, $df$ is the degrees of freedom, and $n$ is the sample size. Additionally, the comparative fit index (CFI) and the Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI) were used, with values greater than 0.90 considered to represent an adequate fit [78].

These procedures established a solid methodological basis for interpreting the factors and the quality of the model, the results of which are presented in the following sections.

4. Results

This section presents the findings from the study on sustainability practices among tourism service providers (TSPs) in the Santurbán Moorland. A survey was conducted among TSPs in mining municipalities and their rural areas of influence. Out of 54 providers that met the selection criteria, 58% agreed to a direct evaluation of their facilities. The data analysis included descriptive statistics, exploratory factor analysis (EFA), and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to identify the key dimensions of sustainability practices.

4.1. Provider Profile

The distribution of TSPs in the region is illustrated in Figure 2. Specifically, 24.1% of the establishments are hostels, 22.2% are hotels and travel agencies, 20.3% are rural lodgings, and 11.2% are rural accommodations. Notably, travel agencies have recently emerged in municipalities such as Suratá and Vetas, indicating the growing interest in tourism-related activities in these areas.

All TSPs in the region are classified as microenterprises, reflected in their lodging capacity: 70% of establishments offer between 10 and 20 rooms, while 30% provide more than 25 rooms. The workforce in these microenterprises remains relatively stable throughout the year, with 94.3% of employees being residents. Regarding gender representation in management roles, 56.67% of managers are men, while 43.33% are women, which is consistent with national trends in Colombia.

Room pricing ranges from USD 10 to USD 25 per person per night. The municipalities of Tona and Matanza report the highest hotel occupancy rates at 40%, whereas California and Vetas have the lowest rates at 20% and 18%, respectively. The low occupancy rates in California and Vetas are primarily attributed to the prevalence of mining activities, which impact the overall demand for tourism accommodations (see Figure 2).

4.2. Statistical Analysis of Sustainability Factors

Skewness and kurtosis values were calculated for all survey items to assess the distributional assumptions required for factorial methods. Most items showed acceptable levels (|skewness| < 2, |kurtosis| < 7), supporting the use of exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis with robust estimation techniques [79]. Only one item exceeded the skewness threshold of |2|, and one showed high kurtosis (>7), both associated with minimal variance in response patterns. These results are summarized in

Table 3. Skewness and Kurtosis for survey items.

Item Code	Skewness	Kurtosis	Skewness OK	Kurtosis OK
Item 1	0.26	1.87	✓	✓
Item 2	−7.14	52.02	✗	✗
Item 3a	−0.27	1.42	✓	✓
Item 3b	−0.02	1.87	✓	✓

and did not compromise the validity of the overall measurement model.

An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) using principal-axis factoring and Varimax rotation was conducted to identify the latent structure underlying the survey items. Parallel analysis and scree plot inspection supported a four-factor solution. The first four factors had eigenvalues (12.88, 5.65, 3.04, 2.11) that exceeded the corresponding simulated eigenvalues (8.21, 4.37, 2.76, 1.98), while the eigenvalue of the fifth factor (1.04) fell below that of its counterpart (1.46).

These four factors explained 72.3% of the total variance: Factor 1 accounted for 32.4%, Factor 2 for 17.8%, Factor 3 for 13.0%, and Factor 4 for 9.1%. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranged from 0.704 to 0.953, confirming the reliability of each dimension.

To aid interpretation,

Table 4. Representative items by factor (descriptive statistics).

Item Code	Factor	Mean (M)	SD
1.3.1	Sustainable Management	4.96	0.27
2.3.1	Conservation and Biodiversity	3.17	1.60
3.2.2	Social Impact and Participation	3.43	1.07
4.1.1	Waste Reduction and Efficiency	3.13	1.54

Note: Item codes (e.g., 1.3.1) follow a structured convention where the first digit indicates the factor number, the second the thematic block within that factor, and the third the specific item.

presents the most representative item per factor based on descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation), and

Table 5. Highest loading item per factor.

Item Text	Dominant Factor	Loading
The company complies with tourism regulations	Sustainable Management	0.98
Water-saving toilets have been installed	Conservation and Biodiversity	0.93
The company prioritizes local suppliers	Social Impact and Participation	0.95
Waste is separated for recycling	Waste Reduction and Efficiency	0.81

displays the highest-loading item in each dimension, reflecting the most influential indicator associated with each latent variable.

These representative tables summarize the factorial structure and provide a basis for interpretation. Detailed statistical information—including the full skewness and kurtosis values (Table S6), the complete item-level descriptive statistics by factor (Table S7), and the full factor loadings and item allocations (Table S8)—is provided in the Supplementary Materials available online at: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15494720 (accessed on 23 May 2025).

4.3. Sustainable Management

The confirmatory factor analysis identified “sustainable management” as a key factor, with an average factor loading of 0.85 and a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.953, indicating high internal consistency (Table S8). This factor includes actions related to long-term planning, regulatory compliance, and the implementation of sustainability systems within companies, aligning with international standards for environmental responsibility and corporate governance [28].

Descriptive statistics revealed a high level of regulatory compliance among TSPs (M = 4.96, SD = 0.27), reflecting a strong commitment to current legal frameworks. However, implementing sustainability systems (M = 2.39, SD = 1.23) and staff engagement (M = 2.43, SD = 1.07) remained limited, signaling institutional gaps in internal management and capacity-building practices.

Even though all TSPs reported compliance with occupational health and safety regulations—including medical insurance and registration in the OSHMS system—field visits confirmed widespread informality in management processes. This informality undermines systemic implementation and necessitates the design of public–private strategies to strengthen occupational protocols in the tourism sector.

The lack of formal training is a critical challenge: less than 5% of surveyed individuals received tourism-related education, and nearly 30% of front-line staff had only a secondary education. These figures justify the need for targeted educational programs, including technical certifications in sustainable tourism, which have demonstrated positive outcomes in similar ecotourism contexts [80].

4.4. Conservation and Biodiversity

“Conservation and biodiversity” emerged as the second most influential factor (α = 0.910; λ⁻ = 0.80), grouping items that reflect ecological preservation, the adoption of water- and energy-saving practices, and the promotion of nature-based infrastructure. These items align with the GSTC criteria for environmental performance.

The descriptive results indicated moderate engagement (M = 3.17, SD = 1.60). While 95% of TSPs reported implementing water-saving technologies (e.g., low-flow toilets), only 33.33% recycled water. This inconsistency may stem from low water costs and geographic abundance, as 66.67% of respondents cited local springs as primary water sources.

Regarding energy practices, 75% of providers reported using LED bulbs and sensors, yet none had adopted renewable sources such as solar panels. This confirmed prior findings in the literature on technological inertia in emerging ecotourism sectors [17]. Although climate mitigation efforts were cited, in situ verification revealed inconsistencies in their implementation, highlighting the need for monitoring and incentive programs.

4.5. Social Impact and Participation

This factor (α = 0.854; λ⁻ = 0.78) groups items focused on community inclusion, support for local economies, and transparency in sustainable tourism efforts. The average score for local supplier prioritization (M = 3.43, SD = 1.07) suggested moderate alignment with fair trade and community engagement principles.

Nevertheless, the mean score for communicating sustainability practices was particularly low (M = 0.56, SD = 0.69), suggesting a critical weakness in stakeholder transparency. This is consistent with other studies documenting the underutilization of digital platforms for sustainability communication among small tourism providers [26].

Despite 73% of companies participating in local tourism associations, no providers offered services adapted to tourists with functional diversity. This reveals a missed opportunity to foster inclusive tourism and aligns with previous regional assessments of service gaps [23]. On the positive side, compliance with protocols on child exploitation and harassment was nearly universal (M = 3.61, SD = 0.81), reflecting alignment with national ethical guidelines and police oversight mechanisms.

4.6. Waste Reduction and Efficiency

“Waste reduction and efficiency” had the lowest internal consistency (α = 0.704; λ⁻ = 0.70) but still met the reliability threshold. It includes items related to recycling practices, separation at source, and efficient use of resources.

The mean score for waste reduction policies was 3.13 (SD = 1.54), reflecting partial compliance. While most providers claimed to implement waste segregation, field visits indicated the absence of ecological collection infrastructure in several locations. In rural municipalities, TSPs often managed their own waste transportation due to a lack of municipal services—a barrier commonly reported in rural tourism contexts, although further region-specific research is needed.

This inconsistency between reported and verified practices calls for more robust waste management systems and inter-institutional collaboration to improve local collection, recycling points, and environmental education.

4.7. Overall Sustainability Practices

The CFA model showed excellent fit: χ² = 2150.4, df = 1359, χ²/df = 1.58, RMSEA = 0.045 (90% CI = 0.042–0.048), CFI = 0.961, TLI = 0.951, and SRMR = 0.041. The explained variance ranged from 26% to 54% across the four dimensions.

Figure 3 shows that “sustainable management” was the most prominent factor, followed by “conservation and biodiversity”, “social impact and participation”, and “waste reduction”. This hierarchy reflects broader challenges in developing economies, where legal compliance often precedes ecological and social innovation [22].

Only one company held NTS certification, while 91.67% lacked formal sustainability accreditation. However, informal adoption of green practices (e.g., basic recycling and energy-saving devices) was observed in several cases, suggesting a foundation upon which formal programs could build.

Communication remains a bottleneck: 58.66% of companies did not disclose sustainability efforts publicly, while 40.60% used social media. There is significant room for improvement through digital campaigns and structured sustainability reports that can enhance visibility and accountability.

5. Discussion

The following discussion is organized according to the key sustainability factors identified through the mixed-methods approach detailed in the methodology section. Each subsection corresponds to dimensions obtained through surveys, structured interviews, and direct observations of tourism service providers (TSPs) in the study area. The interpretation of findings is grounded in the collected data and supported by the literature to ensure consistency between methods, results, and analysis.

5.1. Sustainable Management and Institutional Capacity

Tourism in the Santurbán area is at an early stage of development, primarily oriented toward environmental protection efforts. The region is regarded as an essential source of water resources for current and future communities in the Bucaramanga metropolitan area. While this focus benefits environmental preservation, it also limits the development of traditional economic activities for local communities [78,81].

Despite these challenges, most tourism service providers (TSPs) complied with current regulations, reflected in the high mean score of 4.96 (SD = 0.27). However, implementing sustainability systems (mean = 2.39) and staff training (mean = 2.43) remained limited. These gaps suggest the need for targeted strategies and certification programs to improve planning and operational sustainability [82].

Additionally, only one provider held a certification aligned with the Sustainable Tourism Sector Technical Standard (NTS), while 91.67% lacked such accreditation. This further highlights the sector’s informal nature and the necessity of structured capacity-building programs. Based on these findings, it is recommended to create continuous training programs for TSPs, encourage the adoption of sustainability certifications, and establish public incentives for certified companies.

5.2. Environmental Conservation and Resource Use

TSPs demonstrated an interest in biodiversity conservation, with 85.73% reporting participation in ecosystem preservation and environmental education initiatives. However, the data revealed inconsistencies in implementation. While 95% adopted water-saving practices, only 33.33% recycled water. Additionally, although 75% of TSPs used LED lighting, renewable energy sources such as solar technology were absent. This disconnect between reported actions and observed practices underscores the need for more robust and verifiable conservation efforts [83].

The absence of renewable energy use highlights a gap in long-term sustainability planning. Field observations confirmed that many of the reported measures were not consistently applied. The promotion of conservation actions should include the adoption of renewable energy technologies and the implementation of verifiable measures for water and energy savings among all tourism service providers.

5.3. Social Engagement and Community Integration

The “social impact and participation” factor highlighted partial engagement with local communities. Prioritization of local suppliers (mean = 3.43) and participation in tourism associations (73%) reflected positive trends. However, the communication of sustainability efforts remained limited (mean = 0.56), and services for tourists with functional diversity were lacking. These findings indicate a duality: while there is progress in collaborative participation, there is still significant room for improving inclusivity and transparency [84].

In particular, 58.66% of companies did not communicate their sustainability actions at all, while only 40.60% used social media or blogs. This suggests a clear opportunity to improve communication strategies and stakeholder engagement. To enhance social engagement, it is suggested to develop inclusive tourism initiatives and strengthen communication strategies to better involve local communities and visitors in sustainability actions.

5.4. Waste Management and Infrastructure Gaps

While all TSPs claimed to segregate waste, fieldwork revealed that infrastructure for ecological collection was not consistently available. The mean score for waste reduction policies (3.13) indicated partial implementation. In some municipalities, inadequate municipal services forced operators to self-manage waste, highlighting the urgent need for improved public support and logistics [85,86].

This issue was particularly prominent in rural areas, where the absence of formal waste collection services led some TSPs to transport waste to urban centers on their initiative. This scenario reflects a critical shortfall in public waste management systems and the need for coordinated strategies that support TSPs in complying with waste regulations and advancing circular economy practices.

5.5. Institutional Support and Sectoral Planning

A comprehensive tourism development plan is needed to promote coordinated efforts across the region. The absence of essential infrastructure and public services hinders tourism growth [87]. Collaboration with universities and local governments can support training programs for TSPs. Furthermore, complementary offerings—such as local cuisine and artisanal products—are underdeveloped, limiting the potential for diversified income generation [88,89].

Experiences in other regions help to illustrate the importance of strategic coordination and collaboration among tourism stakeholders. In Andalusia, Spain, the absence of a coordinating entity and a unified tourism development plan has led to a significant disconnect between public and private actors [90]. This gap highlights the need for improved collaboration and communication among stakeholders to promote sustainable practices. Similarly, a study conducted in the highlands of San Luis Potosí, Mexico, proposed criteria for evaluating and conserving natural resources across three dimensions: natural elements, tangible and intangible cultural aspects, and social considerations [91]. This framework serves as a valuable tool for assessing the value of natural resources and integrating them into sustainable tourism development plans. Developing a comprehensive tourism management plan and promoting collaboration between universities, government, and TSPs are crucial steps to strengthen sustainable and diversified tourism offerings in the region.

5.6. Opportunities for Sustainable and Inclusive Tourism

The growing demand for sustainable and inclusive tourism presents clear opportunities for local development. Tourists are increasingly viewed as a vehicle for job creation and community revitalization. However, unregulated access could lead to environmental degradation, undermining the ecosystem that tourism seeks to preserve [80].

The absence of explicit policies to mitigate tourism’s environmental impacts has limited the effectiveness of sustainability practices [80]. New policies should directly support sustainable tourism practices and align with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), providing a framework for understanding how the actions of tourism service providers (TSPs) can contribute to broader development objectives [82].

While there is evidence of efforts in managing water and energy resources, this commitment must extend to biodiversity conservation and environmental education. The lack of emphasis on preserving páramo biodiversity reflects a broader gap in environmental and cultural awareness among TSPs [83,84].

The need for certification and professionalization among tour guides also highlights an area requiring attention. Training and certification are critical for improving the quality of tourism services and promoting environmentally friendly practices [85]. Departmental and local governments, in collaboration with universities, should establish strategic partnerships to ensure continuous training opportunities for TSPs.

A sectoral tourism plan is necessary to guide the systematic growth of tourism in the region. However, this initiative is hindered by a lack of support at both national and local levels, evident in the absence of essential facilities, public services, and road improvements—factors limiting the potential for tourism development [92]. Engaging local communities and business networks in planning and regulation design is necessary to ensure that decisions are responsive to local socioeconomic and environmental conditions [87].

Additionally, the lack of complementary offerings, such as handicrafts, local cuisine, and leisure activities, presents an opportunity to enhance the tourist experience and generate additional income for the community [88]. This situation underscores the need for a strategic review focused on diversifying tourism offerings.

The neglect of the specific needs of certain travelers, including individuals with dietary restrictions (e.g., vegans and vegetarians) and those with reduced mobility, highlights the importance of adapting tourism services to accommodate a diverse audience and promote inclusivity [88]. Moreover, a growing segment of environmentally conscious tourists seeks providers that align with their values, prioritizing sustainable activities, clean energy initiatives, recycled products, and local community-based experiences [90,93,94]. Enhancing digital and physical promotional strategies could increase the visibility of the Santurbán Moorland and contribute to a more sustainable tourism industry [87,95,96].

Finally, the need for online and offline promotional and communication materials represents an opportunity to enhance the region’s visibility and attract more visitors. Identifying and capitalizing on these opportunities may be instrumental in fostering sustainable tourism development in the area [91,93].

The strong internal consistency of the “sustainable management” factor (α = 0.953) confirmed its relevance as the most representative construct of corporate sustainability within the study region, as supported by the confirmatory factor analysis. It is recommended to capitalize on the growing demand for eco-friendly tourism by promoting the Santurbán Moorland’s natural assets through digital platforms and by developing community-based tourism experiences that highlight local culture and biodiversity.

6. Conclusions

This article examines the integration of tourism sustainability criteria among service providers in the mining region of the Santurbán Moorland. This area is of critical importance to the departments of Norte de Santander and Santander, as it serves as the primary water source for the Bucaramanga metropolitan area due to its natural resources. However, it is also the focal point of conflicts related to gold mining in the municipalities of California, Vetas, Suratá, and Matanza. Despite the constant media coverage emphasizing the importance of conserving the páramo, field visits conducted for this research revealed a gap between the environmental rhetoric of the authorities and concrete actions on the ground. To date, no inclusive legislation has been enacted to protect the environment and the interests of the local population, which has a longstanding mining tradition.

The influx of visitors to the lagoon complexes offers potential for local economic development through tourism, with job creation as one of the key benefits. However, it is essential to strike a balance that prevents the negative impacts of unsustainable tourism. A significant risk lies in the potential for excessive tourist traffic over the delicate páramo soil, which contains a high proportion of organic matter, often exceeding 20% of the total soil volume [97]. The specialized flora, characterized by moss and lichen adapted for water conservation, is highly susceptible to damage from repeated foot traffic. This vulnerability could result in the loss of vegetation cover and the creation of barren patches.

These characteristics make páramo soil highly fragile and susceptible to degradation. Therefore, it is crucial that national and local authorities swiftly implement measures to protect the integrity of the soil around the lagoons, such as establishing safe pathways for both the ecosystem and visitors.

Given that the small and medium tourism enterprises (SMEs) identified in the research area are predominantly microenterprises, some of which are managed by family groups, intervention by both the state and academia is essential. The state’s role should involve formulating specific public policies to address the lack of environmental certification and offering accreditation with favorable conditions to help TSPs adapt to the standards required for environmental preservation. For its part, academia must play a critical role in providing training in sustainable tourism practices, focusing on key areas such as safety, social and cultural impacts, and environmental conservation.

In the short term, an interventionist approach involving TSPs, the local population, and the state must move from well-intentioned rhetoric concerning the Santurbán Moorland to tangible actions. These actions should be reflected in the education and training of personnel, the diversification of tourism offerings, and the adaptation of services to the specific needs of visitors. Building upon these needs, this study proposes advancing sustainable tourism through a coordinated action plan that integrates environmental conservation, community engagement, and the adoption of green technologies. Strengthening regulatory frameworks, expanding training opportunities, and promoting environmental certifications among tourism service providers (TSPs) are crucial steps toward achieving long-term ecological and socio-economic resilience in the Santurbán region.

Specific policy measures could include establishing a mandatory environmental certification program for all tourism service providers (TSPs) operating in protected areas, combined with financial subsidies or low-interest loans to facilitate compliance. In parallel, local governments should enforce regulations on visitor carrying capacity for sensitive ecosystems such as the Santurbán Moorland lagoons to control the environmental impact.

From the academic side, universities and research centers should actively design specialized certification courses and technical workshops on sustainable tourism tailored to páramo ecosystems. These programs should focus not only on environmental management but also on entrepreneurship, digital marketing for ecotourism, and inclusive service design, thereby enhancing the competitiveness and sustainability of local TSPs.

In addition to the conclusions presented, it is necessary to formulate specific recommendations for professional practice and future research to advance sustainable tourism development in the Santurbán Moorland.

7. Recommendations for Practice and Research

• Develop continuous training programs for tourism service providers (TSPs) on sustainability practices, in collaboration with local universities and research institutions.
• Design a guide of best practices specifically tailored to páramo ecosystems, offering clear guidelines to minimize environmental impact, conserve biodiversity, and promote responsible tourism.
• Promote public–private partnerships aimed at financing sustainable tourism infrastructure, including waste management systems, eco-friendly transportation, and renewable energy solutions.
• Implement fiscal incentives and financial benefits for TSPs that obtain recognized environmental certifications, encouraging greater adherence to sustainable tourism standards.
• Encourage longitudinal research initiatives to monitor and evaluate the long-term impacts of sustainable practices on ecosystem conservation and community development in the Santurbán Moorland.