Social Resistances and the Creation of Another Way of Thinking in the Peripheral “Self-Constructed Popular Neighborhoods”: Examples from Mexico, Argentina, and Bolivia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Concept of “Self-Constructed Popular Neighborhoods” Focusing Especially on Latin American Cities
We are not the poorest. We are the ones who, like Maldonado, have chosen not to live subordinate.—Mario from Villa 23, “Garganta Poderosa” [11]
- In the Metropolitan Area of Mexico City, “colonias populares” (referring to the work position and the type of labor force of the population), “asentamientos irregulares” (referring to the urban planning legislation) and “ciudades perdidas” or “bidon-villes” (referring to the first period of occupation); they are located in what was previously suburban space.
- In the Metropolitan Area of Buenos Aires (Greater Buenos Aires), “villas” and “asentamientos irregulares” and actually, in the first period of squatting, “villas de emergencia”; they are in the South and West periphery of the city.
- In the Metropolitan Area of La Paz–El Alto, “barrios populares” and “asentamientos urbanos irregulares”, although, in most cases, the irregularity is related only to construction “outside of the urban plan”, without “building license/permission.”
- Turner (1976) recognizes the freedom of self-help housing and focuses on the element of self-management [15]. Finally, Habitat I, the first United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (1976), accepted self-help housing practices as a possible response to accelerated urbanization.
- From a populist approach, the so called “commodification debate” proposes the regularization of the urban situation of informal settlements and the transformation of their inhabitants to smallholders.
- Neo-Marxist approaches are very critical to understanding self-help construction practices, and the support that this process produced: that is, the manipulation through debt and the illusionary adoption of a middle-class ideology (embourgeoisement) by inhabitants. Emilio Pradilla Cobos [16] and Rod Burgess [17] see the limits of this urban process and propose a national housing politics controlled by the working class.
- On the contrary, Turner [18] proposes the idea of self-help social housing (in HABITAT II) and the organized self-management of neighborhoods. “Turner’s central thesis argued that housing is best provided and managed by those who are to dwell in it rather than being centrally administered by the state” [19].
- In the 1980s, World Bank proposed a sort of “laissez faire” urbanization with essential support being provided directly to the inhabitants, through microcredit loans, programs administered by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), or local government funding, mostly without an urban plan. The populist politics of many Latin American parties regarding cities were both the basis of this proposition and accelerated the process of informal (but not self-managed) settlement construction.
“Understanding the evolution of these neighbourhoods requires a dialectical linking of their internal processes with the historical development of their country and region, as well as with international processes that variously favoured or limited their development. These neighbourhoods keep changing all the time (visually as ‘landscapes’, economically, socially, and culturally), but also include several elements of a ‘tradition of rebellion’ or of ‘servitude’ that marked their emergence. So, they often figure in our minds as an allegory: how we talk about them and what we take them to mean depends on what we are looking for. In fact, their description is basically related to their landscape: small simple houses on small land parcels with unpaved roads made without the necessary infrastructure. It is a landscape that changes at different rates depending on the intervention of social movements, the state, or, in most cases, the solidarity among families”.(Petropoulou [5], pp. 816–826)
3. From “Urban and Regional Social Movements” to “Urban and Regional Societies in Movement”: Contributions in the Transformation of Aspects of the Habitus
4. Methodology and Selected Areas of Study
4.1. Interviews and Participate Observation
- The municipality of El Alto in the Metropolitan Area of La Paz and in particular the districts of Ceja and Villa Ingenio.
- The southern district of Buenos Aires (in particular the neighborhoods of Villa 1-11-14, Villa 21-24, Zavaleta, Villa Soldati, Bajo Flores, Nueva Pompeya, Este Baracas), in Greater Buenos Aires.
- The Ciudad Nezahualcóyotl Municipality in the Metropolitan Area of Mexico City, and in particular the Flores neighborhood.
4.2. Organization of Interviews
- Presentation of the history of the land question, self-help neighborhood, urban and social history and of the collectives’ or urban movements’ main goals and history.
- Location of collective, its relationship with the neighborhood, its relationship with other collectives of the similar or divergent thematic foci, and participation in networks at local, national, and international levels.
- Issues of housing, environment, health, nutrition, social welfare, education, and culture.
- Presentation of the key activities in organizational processes and the way in which decisions are taken (participatory or representative democracy, or otherwise); the role of women in the organization and its actions.
- Presentation of key issues of discrimination against and criminalization of neighborhood residents.
- Presentations of the actions taken to overturn the image of these neighborhoods given by dominant mass media.
- A critical presentation of the major social struggles in which the collectives participated and their outcomes today.
- A few words about the contribution of the arts to “poetic movements” through actions that change their everyday life: theatre, poetry, visual arts, music, cinema, and dance (among others).
- Presentation of collectives’ relationships with worker-occupied “recuperated factories”, the alternative education system (inspired by Paulo Freire and other thinkers); indigenous and feminist movements; anti-mining movements; and movements against hydroelectric plants, oil factories, and major infrastructural projects.
- Presentation of their relationship with other major contemporary revolutionary movements (such as the Zapatistas), Latin American social revolutions (in Cuba, Bolivia, and elsewhere), as well as with progressive governments in Latin America.
- Theoretical issues, such as: How do community members construct, and how does the collective perceive the concepts of the “commons” and of “buen vivir”? Do they consider creating prefigurative models for another society? If so, how does this happen?
5. First Comparative Approach
- 1985 in Bolivia (with the intervention of the IMF and the liberalization of the economy that rendered El Alto as a “city in alert” in 1990 [61]);
- 1986 in Mexico (following the admission of Mexico in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, the liberalization of economy, and the intervention of the IMF and World Bank);
- 1989 in Argentina (with the intervention of the IMF and the realization of directives of the Washington Consensus).
5.1. Urban Movements and Self-Constructed Popular Neighbourhoods in Mexico City
“In Nezahualcóyotl we live in circumstances of everyday persecution of young women and considered ‘different’ young people, and of a systematic depreciation of cultural origins, as well.” says Maria [72].(muralist, research participant)
“With public community-level intervention using mural art, we change the identity of the place and we reclaim the space. Art is not for the museum but for the public space. In a deeper sense, all the people are artists.” says Martín Cuaya [73].(muralist, research participant)
5.2. Urban Movements and Self-Constructed Popular Neighbourhoods in La Paz–El Alto
“We are struggling to implement the October agreements. We made these deals because we had no confidence in any representative who could then change political position.” [80].
“We have been living hunted for many years now. Our life was constantly under persecution”… “We had something to do to talk about our values, and our heroes such as Bartolina Sisa and Túpaj Katari”… “Faced with such a situation we began an effort through poetry. We went out to the squares, reading poems, playing music, trying to show that it is possible to sing, dream, to publicly expose a new culture of young people through poetry and other arts” says Willy Flores [81].(ALBOR theatre [82])
5.3. Urban Movements and Self-Constructed Popular Neighbourhoods in Greater Buenos Aires
“the politics of repression and violence (gatillo facil situation) produces an everyday fear for all the young inhabitants in ‘popular neighborhoods’… the solution is to organize ourselves on the path to understand our culture and our body. Art does not change the world, but art is a great companion in the struggle for this change … Popular education is a way to self-educate as working class, young, free people where we all learn from all. Hip-hop has it as a tool for social change” [99].
6. Conclusions and Reflections
- Independence from political parties and private economic interests;
- Systematic presence through media;
- Openness and free interaction with other social movements and collectivities;
- Participatory Democracy and combination of “horizontality” with other forms of governance through the most immediate possible ways in the internal (anti-hierarchical) dynamics of these movements;
- Trade unionism from below, recuperation of the means of production;
- Cultivation of a different relation with the land and all life (eco-balanced living), ecological gardens, “pacha mama”, “buen vivir”;
- Contestation of mega-projects and the privatization of commons (mines, oil tankers, water, gas, etc.);
- Recognition of different gender relations, and a critical stance to patriarchy, (feminism, LGBTQ movement);
- Collective processes of commons creation (commoning);
- Use of a poetic language as a signifying practice;
- Practice of artistic actions that come from the heart of city’s inhabitants and are not just ornamental;
- Interaction between local and global inspiration of creative actions (creative glocality);
- Understanding of “the other” difference. Respect for the different cultures and specifically for Indigenous and Afro-Indian culture;
- Acceptance of sensitivity as a drive not for condemnation but as a creative force of the social movement;
- Understanding of personal time as a special key to coexistence with the other;
- Encompassing rage—whether organized or not—but, if possible, in a poetic and creative way;
- Genuine relationship bonds in daily life and self-sufficiency to meet basic survival needs;
- Recognition that small everyday things play an important role.
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References and Notes
- Foucault, M. Naissance de la Biopolitique. Cours au College de France 1978–1979; EHESS with Gallimard and Seuil: Paris, France, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Agamben, G. State of Exception; University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL, USA, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Wacquant, L. Marginality, ethnicity and penality in the neo-liberal city: An analytic cartography. J. Ethn. Racial Stud. 2014, 37, 1687–1711. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Roy, A. Dis/possessive collectivism: Property and personhood at city’s end. Geoforum 2017, 80, Α1–Α11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Petropoulou, C. Développement Urbain et Éco-Paysages Urbains. Une Étude sur les Quartiers de Mexico et d’Athènes; L’Harmattan: Paris, France, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Castells, M. The City and the Grassroots. A Cross Cultural Theory of Urban Social Movement; Edward Arnold Pub Ltd.: London, UK, 1986. [Google Scholar]
- Bourdieu, P. Outline of a Theory of Practice; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1972. [Google Scholar]
- Zibechi, R. Autonomías y Emancipaciones. América Latina en Movimiento; (In Greek: Αυτονομίες και χειραφετήσεις. Η Λατινική Αμερική σε κίνηση); ALANA: Athens, Greece, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Holloway, J. Crack Capitalism; Pluto Press: London, UK, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Stahler-Sholk, R.; Vanden, H.; Becker, M. Rethinking Latin American Social Movements: Radical Action from Below; Rowman and Littlefield: Lanham, MD, USA, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- La Garganta Poderosa. La Garganta Poderosa. Revista mensual Argentina de Cultura Villera. Available online: https://www.facebook.com/La-Garganta-Poderosa-213440425391495/ (accessed on 30 October 2017).
- Davis, M. Planet of Slums; Verso: London, UK; Brooklyn, NY, USA, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Wagner, F. Urban malformation that had to be prevented from spreading through the urban fabric. For a critical view of this see. In Los Mil Barrios (in)Formales. Aportes Para la Construcción de un Observatorio del Hábitat Popular del Área Metropolitana de Buenos Aires; Lanham, M., Ed.; Instituto del Conurbano, The National University of General Sarmiento (UNGS): Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2010; Available online: https://periferiaactiva.files.wordpress.com/2015/06/los-mil-barrios-cravino-final.pdf (accessed on 19 March 2018).
- Schuurman, F.; Van Naerssen, T. Urban Social Movements in the Third World; Routledge: London, UK, 1989. [Google Scholar]
- Turner, J.F.C. Housing by People. Towards Autonomy in Building Environments; Marion Boyards: London, UK, 1976. [Google Scholar]
- Pradilla Cobos, E. (Ed.) Autoconstrucción, explotación de la fuerza de trabajo y políticas de Estado en América Latina. In Ensayos Sobre el Problema de la Vivienda en América Latina; Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana: Mexico City, Mexico, 1982. [Google Scholar]
- Burgess, R. Self-help housing: A new imperialist strategy? A critique of the Turner school. Antipode 1977, 9, 50–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Turner, J.F.C. Issues in Self-help and Self-managed Housing. In Self-Help Housing: A Critique; Ward, P., Ed.; Mansell: London, UK, 1982. [Google Scholar]
- Spatial Agency. Turner’s Text. Available online: http://www.spatialagency.net/database/john.turner (accessed on 10 November 2017).
- Harvey, D. Space of Global Capitalism. Towards a Theory of Uneven Geographical Development; Verso: London, UK; Brooklyn, NY, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Ramos, L. El Fracaso del Consenso de Washington, la Caída de su Mejor Alumno: Argentina; Icaria Editorial: Barcelona, Spain, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Escobar, A. Latin America at a crossroads: Alternative modernizations, post-liberalism, or post-development? Cult. Stud. 2010, 24, 1–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Biegon, R. The United States and Latin America in the Trans-Pacific Partnership: Renewing Hegemony in a Post—Washington Consensus Hemisphere? Lat. Am. Perspect. 2017, 44, 81–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jacobs, M. Reforming Housing Policies in Latin America Learning from Experience. How Can Housing Finance Policies in Latin America Be Improved? Inter-American Development Bank: Washington, DC, USA, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Ferguson, B.; Navarrete, J. New Approaches to Progressive Housing in Latin America: A Key to Habitat Programs and Policy; Habitat International: Santiago, Chile, 2003; pp. 309–323. [Google Scholar]
- Bauman, Z. Globalization. The Human Consequences; Polity Press and Blackwell Publishers Ltd.: Oxford, UK, 1998. [Google Scholar]
- UN-Habitat. The Challenge of Slums: Global Report on Human Settlements 2003; United Nations Human Settlement Program (Un-Habitat); Earthscan Publications Ltd.: Nairobi, Kenya; London, UK, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Berenstein, J.P. Un Dispositif Architectural Vernaculaire. Les favelas à Rio Janeïro. Ph.D. Thesis, Sorbone Paris, Paris, France, 1998. submitted. [Google Scholar]
- Nuñez, O. Innovaciones Democratico-Culturales del Movimiento Urbano-Popular; Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana: Mexico City, Mexico, 1990. [Google Scholar]
- Dussel, E. Filosofías del Sur, Descolonización y Transmodernidad; Akal/Inter Pares: Mexico City, Mexico, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Damianakos, S. La Grèce Dissidente Moderne: Cultures Rebelles; L’Harmattan: Paris, France, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Wallerstein, M. Historia y Dilemmas de Los Movimientos Antisistemicos; Ediciones Desde Abajo: La otra Mirada de Clio, Mexico, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Petropoulou, C. Derecho a la ciudad y movimientos sociales contemporáneos—Por un movimiento social urbano-regional …¿poético? Desde Nezahualcoyotl al mundo. In Urban and Regional Social Movements; Petropoulou, C., Vitopoulou, A., Tsavdaroglou, C., Eds.; Invisible Cities Research Group: Thessaloniki, Greece, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Stavrides, S. Common Space: The City as Commons; Zed Books Ltd.: London, UK, 2016; Available online: http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/distributed/C/bo23360613.html (accessed on 19 March 2018).
- Petropoulou, C. Crisis, Right to the City movements and the question of spontaneity: Athens and Mexico City. City 2014, 18, 563–572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lefebvre, H. Le Droit à la Ville; Collection Points; Seuil: Paris, France, 1968. [Google Scholar]
- Harvey, D. Rebel Cities; Verso: London, UK, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Carlsson, C.; Manning, F. Nowtopia: Strategic Exodus? Antipode 2010, 42, 924–953. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Korol, C. La formación política de los movimientos populares latinoamericanos. OSAL 2007, 8, 227–240. [Google Scholar]
- Ceceña, A.E. Derivas Delmundo en el Que Caben Todos los Mundos; Siglo XXI and CLACSO: Mexico City, Mexico, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Ouviña, H. La política prefigurativa de los movimientos populares en América Latina. Hacia una nueva matriz de intelección para las ciencias sociales. Acta Sociol. 2013, 62, 77–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sitrin, M. Rethinking Social Movements with Societies in Movement. In Social Sciences for an Other Politics; Palgrave Macmillan: Cham, Switzerland, 2016; pp. 135–149. [Google Scholar]
- Kioupkiolis, A.; Katsanbekis, G. Radical Democracy and Collective Movements Today. The Biopolitics of the Multitude versus the Hegemony of the People; Routledge: London, UK, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Cornish, F.; Haaken, J.; Moskovitz, L.; Jackson, S. Rethinking prefigurative politics: Introduction to the special thematic section. J. Soc. Political Psychol. 2016, 4, 114–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Maeckelbergh, M. The Prefigurative Turn: The Time and Place of Social Movement Practice. In Social Sciences for an Other Politics; Palgrave Macmillan: Cham, Switzerland, 2016; pp. 121–134. [Google Scholar]
- Della Porta, D.; Dianni, M. Social Movements. An introduction; Blackwell Publishing Ltd.: Oxford, UK, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Lefebvre, H. La vie Quotidienne dans le Monde Moderne; Gallimard: Paris, France, 1968. [Google Scholar]
- Vaneigem, R. Traité de Savoir-Vivre à L’usage des Jeunes Générations; Gallimard: Paris, France, 1972. [Google Scholar]
- Papi, A. Antiviolenti sì Nonviolenti No. Rivista Anarchica 2004, 34, 2. Available online: http://www.arivista.org/?nr=296&pag=19.htm (accessed on 15 March 2018).
- Varcarolis, O. Creative Resistance and Anti-Power. Projects and Reflections of the Radical Movement in the 21st Century; Pagkaki: Athens, Greece, 2012; (In Greek). Available online: https://issuu.com/platform-aii/docs/varkarolis-orestis_dhmiourgikes-ant (accessed on 19 March 2018).
- Vail, J.; Hollands, R. Creative Democracy and the Arts: The Participatory Democracy of the Amber Collective. Cult. Sociol. 2013, 7, 352–367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yates, L. Everyday politics, social practices and movement networks: Daily life in Barcelona’s social centres. Br. J. Sociol. 2015, 66, 236–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Deleuze, G.; Guattari, F. Mille Plateaux. Capitalisme et Schizophrénie ΙΙ; Éditions de Minuit: Paris, France, 1980. [Google Scholar]
- Daskalaki, M.; Mould, O. Beyond Urban Subcultures: Urban Subversions as Rhizomatic Social Formations. Int. J. Urban Reg. Res. 2013, 37, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bourdieu, P.; Wasquant, L. Una Invitación a la Sociología Reflexiva; Siglo XXI: Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Hobsbawm, E. The Age of Capital, 1848–1875; Mentor Book; Hachette UK: London, UK, 1979. [Google Scholar]
- Argentina’s National Institute of Statistics and Censuses (INDEC). Censo Nacional de Población, Hogares y Viviendas 2010; Argentina’s National Institute of Statistics and Censuses: Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2012.
- Corriente Villera Corriente Villera Independiente 2017. Available online: https://www.facebook.com/corrientevillera/videos/vb.581282611939175/1202104656523631/?type=2&theater (accessed on 15 March 2018).
- Petropoulou, C. The role of solidarity economy in Latin America “barrios”: Cases in Metropolitan Area of Mexico City. In Proceedings of the International Conference on “Changing Cities”: Spatial, Morphological, Formal & Socio-Economic Dimensions, University of Thessaly, Skiathos Island, Greece, 18–21 June 2013; Available online: https://www.academia.edu/29677392/The_role_of_solidarity_economy_in_Latin_America_barrios_Cases_in_Metropolitan_Area_of_Mexico_City (accessed on 19 March 2018).
- Varcarolis, O.; King, D. Voicing researched activists with responsive action research. Qual. Res. Organ. Manag. Int. J. 2017, 12, 315–334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Díaz, M.P. Hábitat popular y mercado laboral: El desarrollo urbano desigual de la ciudad de El Alto (Bolivia). Rev. INVI 2015, 30, 111–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Semo, I.; Loaeza, S.; Bellingeri, M. La Transicion Interumpida. Mexico 1968–1988; Universidad Iberoamericana: Mexico City, Mexico, 1993. [Google Scholar]
- Ward, P. México. Una Megaciudad. Producción y Reproducción de un Medio Ambiente Urbano; Consejo Nacional de Cultura y Artes: Madrid, Spain, 1991. [Google Scholar]
- Schteingart, M. Espacio y Vivienda en la Ciudad de Mexico; El Colegio de Mexico: Mexico City, Mexico, 1991. [Google Scholar]
- Ramírez Sáiz, J.M. El Movimiento Urbano Popular en Mexico; Siglo XXI: Mexico City, Mexico, 1986. [Google Scholar]
- Hiernaux, D.; Tomas, F. (Eds.) Cambios Econόmicos y Periferia de Las Grandes Ciudades. El Caso de la Ciudad de México; UAM and IFAL: Mexico City, Mexico, 1994. [Google Scholar]
- Schteingart, M. Los Productores del Espacio Habitable. Estado, Empresa y Sociedad en la Ciudad de México; El Colegio de Mexico: Mexico City, Mexico, 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Ocotitla Saucedo, P. Movimientos de Colonos en Ciudad Nezahualcóyotl: Acción Colectiva y Política Popular 1945–1975; División de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana: Iztapalapa, Mexico, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Coulomb, R.; Sanchez Mejorada, C. Pobreza Urbana, Autogestión y Política; Centro de la Vivienda y Estudios Urbanos (CENVI): Mexico City, Mexico, 1992. [Google Scholar]
- Agustin, J. La Contracultura en Mexico. La Historia y el Significado de los Rebeldes Sin Causa, los Jipitecas, los Punks y las Bandas; Grijalbo: Barcelona, Spain, 1996. [Google Scholar]
- Legoretta, J. Efectos Ambientales de la Expanciόn de la Ciudad de México 1970–1993; Centro de Ecologia y Desarrollo: Mexico City, Mexico, 1994; Available online: https://books.google.gr/books/about/Efectos_ambientales_de_la_expansión_de.html?id=zJSzAAAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y (accessed on 19 March 2018).
- Maria (Pseudonym). Interview Given to Christy Petropoulou (personal archive) Related to Muralisme and Woman Actions in Nezahualcoyotl. 1 June 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Cuaya, M. Interview given to Christy Petropoulou (personal archive) related to Muralisme in Nezahualcoyotl. 1 June 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Mamani, P. El Rugir de Las Multitudes. Μicrogobiernos Barriales; La Mirada Salvaje: El Alto, Bolivia, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Prada Alcoreza, R. Largo Octubre. Genealogía de los Movimientos Sociales. Available online: https://dinamicas-moleculares.webnode.es/news/el-ayllu-en-el-desierto-capitalista-/ (accessed on 15 March 2018).
- Quispe Huanca, F. La Caída de Goni. Diario de la Huelga de Hambre; Ediciones Pachakuti: Qullasuyu, Bolivia, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Zibechi, R. Dispersar el Poder; Editorial Abya Yala: Quito, Equador, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Gutiérrez Aguilar, R. ¡A Desordenar! Por una Historia Abierta de la Lucha Social; Tinta Limon: Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Orgáz Garcia, M. El Poder de la Nacionalización. La Falsa Nacionalización de Evo Morales y la Venta de Gas a Chile; Ed. Independiente: Orgáz Garcia La Paz, Bolivia, 2008; Available online: https://books.google.gr/books/about/El_poder_de_la_nacionalización.html?id=umooAQAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y (accessed on 19 March 2018).
- Fernando (Pseudonym). Interview Given to Christy Petropoulou (Personal archive) Related with FEJUVE—El Alto Movement. 14 April 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Flores, W. Interview given to Christy Petropoulou (Personal archive) related to ALBOR theater actions in El Alto, Bolivia. 14 April 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Albor, Quienes Somos 2017. Available online: http://albor-arte.blogspot.gr/2009/01/quienes-somos.html (accessed on 18 March 2018).
- Benedetti, H. Nueva Historia del Tango. De los Originas al Siglo XXI; Siglo XXI: Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Lobato, M.; Suriano, J. Atlas Histórico de la Argentina; Editorial Sudamericana: Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Rodríguez, F. Entre la omisión y la expulsión. Un análisis sobre las modalidades de intervención estatal en los Nuevos Asentamientos Urbanos (NAU). In Barrios al Sur; Herzer, H., Ed.; Café de Las Ciudades: Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2012; pp. 73–95. [Google Scholar]
- Tcach, C. De la Revolución Libertadora al Cordobazo. Córdoba, el Rostro Anticipado del País; Siglo XXI: Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- De Privitellio, L.; Romero, L.A. Organizaciones de la sociedad civil, tradiciones cívicas y cultura política democrática: El caso de Buenos Aires, 1912–1976. Rev. Hist. 2005, 1, 1–34. [Google Scholar]
- Saborido, J.; de-Privitellio, L. Breve Historia de la Argentina; Alianza Editorial: Madrid, Spain, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Rodríguez, G. Segregación residencial socioeconómica en la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires. Dimensiones y cambios entre 1991–2001. Población Buenos Aires 2008, 5, 7–30. [Google Scholar]
- Zibechi, R. Genealogía de la Revuelta. Argentina: La Sociedad en Movimiento; Ediciones FZLN: Mexico City, Mexico, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Retamozo, M. Movimientos Sociales. Subjetividad y Acción de los Trabajadores Desocupados en Argentina. Ph.D. Thesis, Flasco Mexico, Ciudad de México, Mexico, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Poli, C. Movimiento Territorial Liberación Su Historia. Piquetes, Organización, Poder Popular; Departamento de Historia, Centro Cultural de la Cooperación Floreal Gorini: Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Centro de Documentación de Empresas Recuperadas. Worker-Recovered Entreprises at the Beginning of the Government of Mauricio Macri. State of the Situation as of May 2016; Workers Economy Dossier: Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Ouviña, H. Tomar el Obelisco por asalto para conquistar el derecho a la ciudad. In Las Voces de los Huelguistas. 53 Días de Acampe y Huelga de Hambre. Carpa Villera; América Libre: Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Korol, C.; Mosquera, A. Las Voces de los Huelguistas. 53 Días de Acampe y Huelga de Hambre. Carpa Villera; América Libre: Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Chaher, S. La Lucha de las Mujeres en la Carpa Villera 2014. Sandra Chaher, 19 June 2014. Available online: http://www.comunicarigualdad.com.ar/la-lucha-de-las-mujeres-en-la-carpa-villera/(accessed on 10 March 2018).
- Ruggeri, A. INFORME Las Empresas Recuperadas por los Trabajadores en los Comienzos del Gobierno de Mauricio Macri. Estado de Situación a Mayo de 2016. Available online: http://www.recuperadasdoc.com.ar/informe-mayo-2016.pdf (accessed on 10 March 2018).
- Freire, P. Pedagogía de la Esperanza: Un Reencuentro con la Pedagogía del Oprimido; Paz e Terra: Río de Janeiro, Brazil, 1992. [Google Scholar]
- Maria and Juan (Pseudonyms). Interview Given to Christy Petropoulou (personal archive) Related to Hip Hop and Graffity Actions in Buenos Aires. 21 March 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Petropoulou, C. Vers un Mouvement Urbain Poetique? Une Étude à Mexico; L’Harmattan: Paris, France, 2010; Available online: https://books.google.gr/books/about/Vers_un_mouvement_social_urbain_poétiqu.html?hl=fr&id=IYMl3FwH42oC&output=html_text&redir_esc=y (accessed on 19 March 2018).
- Escobar, A. Territorios de diferencia: La ontología política de los derechos al territorio. Cuad. Antropol. Soc. 2015, 41, 25–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Psimitis, M. Social Movements in the Everyday Life; Tziola: Thessaloniki, Greece, 2017; (In Greek). Available online: https://www.tziola.gr/book/koinonika-kinimata/ (accessed on 19 March 2018).
- Esteva, G. The Oaxaca Commune and Mexico’s Coming Insurrection. Antipode 2010, 42, 978–993. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Soto Villagran, P.; Helena Guzman, K. Mujeres, territorio y movimientos sociales. Un análisis del caso de Atenco. In Urban and Regional Social Movements; Petropoulou, C., Vitopoulou, A., Tsavdaroglou, C., Eds.; Invisible Cities Press: Thessalonica, Greece, 2016; pp. 255–274. [Google Scholar]
- Indaburu Quintana, R. Evaluación de El Alto; The United States Agency for International Development (USAID): Washington, DC, USA, 2004.
- Nail, T. What is an Assemblage? SubStance 2017, 46, 21–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burman, A. El ayllu y el indianismo. Autenticidad, representatividad y territorio en el quehacer político del Conamaq, Bolivia. In Los Nuevos Caminos de los Movimientos Sociales en Latinoamérica; Ejdesgaard Jeppsen, A.M., Balslev Clausen, H., Velázquez García, M.A., Eds.; Tilde Editores: Monterrey, Mexico, 2015; pp. 100–122. [Google Scholar]
- Vanden, H.; Funke, P.; Prevost, G. (Eds.) The New Global Politics: Global Social Movements in the Twenty-First Century; Routledge: New York, NY, USA; London, UK, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Bourdieu, P. Habitus. In Habitus: A Sense of Place; Hillier, J., Rooksby, E., Eds.; Ashgate: Aldershot, UK, 2005; pp. 43–52. [Google Scholar]
- Gutiérrez Aguilar, R. Horizontes Comunitario-Populares Producción de lo Común más Allá de las Políticas Estado-Céntricas; Traficantes de Sueños, Mapas: Madrid, Spain, 2017; Available online: https://www.traficantes.net/sites/default/files/pdfs/Horizontes%20comunitario-populares_Traficantes%20de%20Sueños.pdf (accessed on 19 March 2018).
- Cisneros Puebla, C. Manifesto for a “Dangerous Sociology”. Athenea Digit. 2008, 13, 171–184. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
© 2018 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Petropoulou, C. Social Resistances and the Creation of Another Way of Thinking in the Peripheral “Self-Constructed Popular Neighborhoods”: Examples from Mexico, Argentina, and Bolivia. Urban Sci. 2018, 2, 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci2010027
Petropoulou C. Social Resistances and the Creation of Another Way of Thinking in the Peripheral “Self-Constructed Popular Neighborhoods”: Examples from Mexico, Argentina, and Bolivia. Urban Science. 2018; 2(1):27. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci2010027
Chicago/Turabian StylePetropoulou, Chryssanthi (Christy). 2018. "Social Resistances and the Creation of Another Way of Thinking in the Peripheral “Self-Constructed Popular Neighborhoods”: Examples from Mexico, Argentina, and Bolivia" Urban Science 2, no. 1: 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci2010027