Urban Expansion vs. Environmental Resilience: Khenchela’s Semi-Arid Struggle and Pathways to Sustainable Revival

Abstract

This study investigates the rapid, often uncontrolled urban expansion in Khenchela, a medium-sized city in Algeria’s eastern High Plains, and its profound environmental repercussions amid semi-arid fragility. Drawing on sustainable urban development and resilience frameworks, it dissects pressures such as green space reduction (from 45 ha in 1998 to 33 ha in 2023, dropping per capita from 6.1 m² to 3 m² below WHO standards), water scarcity with 35% leakage losses waste mismanagement, informal settlements on hazardous lands, air/soil pollution, and climate vulnerabilities like heat waves and flooding. Employing a mixed-methods approach documentary analysis of (MPLUUP, LUP and MDP) plans, GIS cartography of spatial evolution (2000–2025), statistical demographics, field observations, and institutional critiques, the research exposes governance gaps: fragmented coordination, weak ecological integration, and resource shortages. It reveals socio-spatial disparities across functional zones, underscoring the need for adaptive, participatory strategies that promote polycentric and compact urban forms, enhanced biodiversity, efficient infrastructure, and inclusive governance to strengthen urban resilience.

1. Introduction

Globally, urbanization has reached unprecedented levels. According to the United Nations [1], over 56% of the world’s population currently resides in urban areas, a figure projected to reach 68% by 2050. This trend is especially pronounced in developing countries, where cities in Africa and Asia are expanding at rates that far outpace infrastructure development and environmental planning capacities [2,3]. Rapid urban expansion in these regions is often characterized by spatial fragmentation, unregulated land conversion, and the erosion of ecological buffers, creating a global challenge that demands context-specific analytical frameworks [4,5]. Within this global context, medium-sized cities in semi-arid zones such as Khenchela in Algeria’s High Plains represent a unique frontier where climatic fragility, rapid demographic transitions, and governance deficits converge, demanding localized, context-sensitive research frameworks.

At the local scale, this process that is often rapid, spontaneous, and poorly planned generates substantial socio-spatial and environmental consequences. Urbanization exerts considerable pressure on natural resources and local ecosystems, producing impacts that directly affect urban quality of life, including air and water pollution, soil artificialization, biodiversity loss, water resource depletion, and waste management failures [6,7].

This rapid and often uncontrolled dynamic is particularly visible in fragile and semi-arid urban contexts, such as the city of Khenchela in the High Plains of eastern Algeria. Khenchela faces steady population growth, accelerated urbanization, and tensions related to the management of natural and urban resources [8]. A terminological clarification is warranted: the name “Khenchela” refers simultaneously to the wilaya (province), the daïra (district), and the municipality (commune). Throughout this study, unless otherwise specified, “Khenchela” refers to the municipality (commune), which serves as the administrative capital of both the province and the district bearing the same name. Importantly, the urban fabric of Khenchela city has progressively expanded to occupy nearly the entire surface area of the municipality (commune), such that the built-up area and the municipal territory have become virtually coextensive. This spatial saturation means that, in practice, references to the “city” and the “commune” describe the same geographical reality in terms of land use and urban coverage. As a consequence of this near-complete consumption of intra-municipal land reserves, urban growth has begun spilling over into neighboring municipalities, particularly El Hamma to the north and Ensigha to the south, prompting the development of an intercommunal planning framework (MPLUUP intercommunal) encompassing these three communes. This territorial dynamic justifies the dual use of “city” and “commune” throughout this study, as both designations refer to an effectively unified urban-territorial entity.

Despite existing urban planning policies such as the MPLUUP (Master Plan for Land Use and Urban Planning), the LUP (Land Use Plan) and the MDP (Municipal Development Plan), local environmental management suffers from several shortcomings, including weak integration of ecological aspects, lack of effective institutional coordination, insufficient environmental studies, and limited citizen participation [9].

Recent studies on Khenchela, notably those by Rekkab et al. [10], as well as the work of Djebnoune et al. [7], highlight the environmental and social challenges the city faces. These studies show the gradual degradation of green spaces, limited water resources, and air pollution that, while generally acceptable, occasionally exceeds the threshold levels recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). Furthermore, the expansion of informal settlements on the city’s outskirts reflects the complexity and fragmentation of urban dynamics, as well as inadequate land management. This phenomenon, coupled with pressure on basic infrastructure, increases the social and environmental vulnerability of many urban populations.

Beyond Khenchela, these issues are part of broader challenges observed in several medium-sized Algerian cities and in other developing countries. According to analyses by Larbi and Said [11] and Naghel et al. [12], rapid urban growth amplifies conflicts over land use, highlighting the tensions between economic development, housing, environmental preservation, and territorial governance. Comparative studies such as those led by Hamoudi et al. [13] or transdisciplinary research on urban ecology conducted by Armand Fargues [14] demonstrate the need to adopt integrated, multidimensional approaches linking sustainable urban development, participatory governance, and urban resilience. These approaches aim to reconcile human needs with the preservation of the territory’s natural capacities [12].

The theoretical framework adopted in this article is based on the principles of sustainable urban development, which integrate economic, social, and environmental dimensions within an integrated framework. This model seeks not only to accompany urban growth but also to rethink city production modes to prevent disorderly sprawl and excessive spatial specialization. It promotes more compact, polycentric cities organized around soft mobility and efficient infrastructure, with strong participation of local stakeholders in territorial governance. From this perspective, the city must strengthen its adaptive capacity in the face of various disruptions (natural disasters, economic or social pressures) by developing urban resilience, a concept that provides a relevant analytical framework for understanding vulnerabilities and possible levers for action [15,16]. These three conceptual pillars, sustainable urban development, urban environment, and urban resilience, are not treated as isolated frameworks but are integrated into a coherent analytical model. Sustainable urban development provides the normative horizon (the desired trajectory), the urban environment concept offers the diagnostic lens (the multidimensional reality to assess), and urban resilience supplies the operational framework (the capacity to adapt and transform). Together, they form a cascading analytical chain: sustainability defines the goals, urban environment reveals the gaps, and resilience identifies the adaptive pathways. This integrated framework ensures theoretical coherence throughout the empirical analysis of Khenchela’s urban dynamics.

The central issue of this study, therefore, is the following: how can a sustainable balance be achieved between rapid and often uncontrolled urban expansion and environmental preservation in a medium-sized city like Khenchela? This question raises several sub-issues related to the effectiveness of local policies, territorial governance, citizen participation, and the implementation of integrated planning tools that account for specific environmental challenges.

To address these questions, this work adopts a multidisciplinary and mixed methodological approach. It combines documentary analysis of local urban and environmental policies with quantitative data collection involving statistical and demographic surveys, as well as qualitative analysis based on interviews and on-site observations. The use of geomatic tools (GIS) also allows for visualization of the spatial evolution of urbanization and zones of environmental pressure. This approach is embedded within a comparative perspective with similar experiences in Algeria and abroad to propose solutions suited to the specific context of Khenchela as detailed in

Table 1. Key case studies on urban environmental challenges and quality of life in Algerian cities (Khenchela Focus).

Reference	Case Study	Method	Main Keywords	Main Highlights
[10]	Khenchela City, Algeria—Environmental dimension of quality of life	Mixed methods; objective data from databases and fieldwork; online survey with 500 residents	Quality of life, environmental variables, air quality, water quality, green spaces, waste management	Water sources limited, distribution networks in poor condition; air quality generally good but some pollutants exceed WHO thresholds; poor waste management contrasted with availability of green spaces; comprehensive environmental quality assessment
[12]	Household waste management in Msila, Algeria	Literature review, field surveys, sampling, interviews, spatial–temporal analysis	Waste management, household waste, urbanization, pollution, public service, integrated planning	Waste generation increasing with population growth; inadequate public waste services; informal sector active; need for integrated waste management plans; material and human resource challenges
[17]	Urban space management conflicts in Khenchela Province, Algeria	Case study, analysis of urban divisions, actors’ conflicts, socio-environmental evaluation	Urban space, governance, conflicts, divisions, spatial planning, quality of life	Urban sprawl and informal housing in Khenchela; fragmented administrative divisions causing management conflicts; governance and actor coordination central to urban quality of life; need for clearer urban spatial delimitations
[18]	Khenchela City, Algeria	Descriptive approach with case study; multidisciplinary (geography & urban planning); purposive sampling (3 individuals); interviews, observation, documents	Urban growth, housing crisis, real estate consumption, migration, natural growth, steppe cities, sustainable urbanization	Population growth 1966–2022 (10,981 to 146,950); severe housing crisis from rapid urban expansion; outward expansion since 2008; high migration & natural growth rates; unplanned urban development challenges
[19]	Khenchela City, Algeria (Environmental Pollution)	Doctoral research in sociology; mixed methods (theoretical & field); statistical analysis; multi-stage development analysis	Urban growth, environmental pollution, air/water/soil pollution, waste management, sustainable development, population statistics, urban phases	Comprehensive urban growth phases analysis; multiple pollution types documented; population & waste statistics; urban–environment relationship; historical development stages; pollution sources identification

.

Finally, the aim of this article is to contribute to an essential scientific and operational debate: reconciling urban development with ecological sustainability. It seeks to propose recommendations based on a critical reading of current urban dynamics and public policies, in order to feed reflection on the construction of resilient, inclusive, and environmentally respectful cities, both for the present and for future generations.

1.1. Sustainable Urban Development

Sustainable urban development today constitutes an essential reference framework for rethinking the future of cities in the face of economic, social, and environmental transformations. It is no longer merely a matter of accompanying urban growth, but of deeply rethinking the modes of city production to ensure a lasting balance between human imperatives and the natural capacities of territories [20,21].

This concept rests on the harmonious integration of three fundamental pillars:

• Environmental sustainability, which aims to reduce damage to urban ecosystems, preserve natural resources, decrease pollutant emissions, and control soil artificialization [22,23].
• Social sustainability, centered on territorial equity, equitable access to urban services, the fight against spatial segregation, and the improvement of living conditions for all categories of the population [24].
• Economic sustainability, which promotes productive development that generates employment while respecting territorial balances and environmental constraints [20,25].

From this perspective, sustainable urban development requires a break from traditional planning logics characterized by uncontrolled urban sprawl, excessive spatial specialization, and increasing dependence on scarce resources and fossil fuels. It calls for cities that are more compact, polycentric, and organized around soft mobility and efficient infrastructure [26].

Its implementation also necessitates participatory territorial governance, in which all stakeholders, public institutions, civil society, experts, and economic operators contribute to the co-construction of planning strategies. This governance relies on modern planning tools incorporating environmental assessment, rational land management, and consideration of natural and technological risks [27].

Thus, sustainable urban development not only aims to improve the quality of life of current populations but also to prepare cities for future challenges by strengthening their adaptability, resilience, and social cohesion. It constitutes a comprehensive approach guiding urban growth toward a lasting balance between human needs, economic dynamics, and the ecological limits of the territory [27].

1.2. The Urban Environment: A Multidimensional Construct

The urban environment is not limited to its natural or physical component. It is a complex and evolving reality shaped by multiple interactions among the social, economic, spatial, and ecological dynamics that coexist within the city. It represents a structured system, influenced both by human development and by local environmental characteristics [28].

This multidimensional construct is expressed through several complementary dimensions:

• An ecological dimension, related to air quality, natural resource management, and the preservation of green spaces and biodiversity [15].
• A social dimension, which concerns residents’ living conditions, inequalities in access to a healthy environment, environmental safety, and the perception of the urban landscape.
• An economic dimension, marked by land pressure, the distribution of activities, mobility flows, and patterns of urban consumption.
• An institutional and political dimension, which manifests through spatial planning choices, policy orientations, and forms of territorial governance.

The urban environment thus appears as a space where diverse, often contradictory, logics converge. It is simultaneously a living space, a site of land use conflicts, and a potential lever for sustainability. Understanding its multiple dimensions is essential for analyzing challenges linked to urban expansion, environmental degradation, and socio-spatial inequalities particularly in fragile or rapidly evolving urban contexts [28].

1.3. Urban Resilience as an Analytical Framework

Urban resilience is a central concept in contemporary approaches to urban sustainability. It refers to the ability of an urban system to anticipate, absorb, adapt to, and transform in response to various disturbances whether they be natural disasters, economic shocks, health crises, or social tensions. Unlike traditional approaches that aim to restore a previous state, resilience adopts an evolutionary and adaptive vision of the city [29,30].

As an analytical framework, resilience makes it possible to diagnose the structural vulnerabilities of urban territories while identifying levers for strengthening their robustness. It is based on several key principles, such as:

• Functional diversity, which promotes infrastructure redundancy to prevent critical dependencies.
• Learning capacity, through the capitalization of past experiences and territorial innovation.
• Adaptive governance, which involves local stakeholder participation and institutional flexibility.
• Social and territorial equity, aimed at reducing the vulnerability of the most exposed populations.

This approach is especially relevant in urban contexts facing rapid transformations and limited resources. It offers an integrated perspective on urban development, combining spatial, environmental, and social dimensions within a long-term sustainability framework.

Applying the resilience framework to a city like Khenchela characterized by ecological imbalances, uncoordinated urbanization, and socio-economic challenges would help identify weaknesses within its urban system and propose more sustainable and inclusive adaptation strategies [31].

2. Materials and Methods

This study employs a mixed-methods approach combining analytical, descriptive, and applied research strategies to examine the relationship between urban development and environmental management in Khenchela (Figure 1). More specifically, the mixed-methods design follows a sequential explanatory strategy: quantitative data (demographic statistics from ONS censuses 1998–2023, GIS-derived land use metrics, and municipal environmental reports) were first collected and analyzed to establish spatial and temporal trends. Subsequently, qualitative data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with 12 key informants, including municipal planning officers (n = 4), environmental directorate staff (n = 3), urban planning consultants (n = 2), and community representatives (n = 3), selected through purposive sampling based on their direct involvement in Khenchela’s urban governance. Field observations were conducted across 15 sites covering the three morphological zones (historic core, pre-2000 extensions, and post-2000 extensions) during March–June 2024. GIS analysis employed ArcGIS 10.8 using Landsat imagery (30 m resolution) for land use/land cover classification across four time periods (2000, 2008, 2015, 2023), with supervised classification achieving an overall accuracy of 87%. The integration of quantitative spatial trends with qualitative institutional insights allows for triangulation and enhances the validity of findings.

The data collection tools and techniques are diverse: a documentary analysis of urban planning and legislative documents, statistical analysis of demographic and socio-economic data, content analysis of institutional reports and discourses, and the use of Geographic Information System (GIS) tools to visualize the spatial evolution of urbanization and identify areas under environmental pressure. The city of Khenchela was selected due to its relevant context of rapid urban growth in a semi-arid region, characterized by governance challenges and specific pressures on natural resources.

The research boundaries cover the urban perimeter of Khenchela, including its recent extensions, and the temporal scope extends from 2000 to 2025. This timeframe allows for the observation of urban and environmental transformations over a quarter of a century. The interdisciplinary mixed methodology combines qualitative and quantitative data to thoroughly analyze the social, institutional, spatial, and environmental dimensions of urban development within this specific context.

2.1. Nature and Type of Study

The study adopts an analytical, descriptive, and applied approach. It is analytical as it seeks to understand the relationship between urban development dynamics and environmental management. It is descriptive because it provides an overview of the environmental situation in Khenchela. Finally, it is applied, as it is based on a real case study from which concrete lessons can be drawn.

The chosen approach is qualitative, allowing for in-depth analysis of the social, institutional, and spatial aspects of the urban phenomenon. This approach was selected in order not only to quantify phenomena but also to understand their logic, perceptions, and complex interactions within the local context (Figure 2).

2.2. Data Collection Tools and Techniques

The research relies on several methodological tools:

• Documentary analysis: Examination of urban planning documents (MPLUUP, LUP, development plans), legislative texts, and scientific literature on urban environment and sustainable development.
• Statistical analysis: Use of quantitative data from population censuses, socio-economic statistics, and municipal reports to outline the urban profile of the city.
• Content analysis: Critical reading of institutional discourses, development reports, and planning documents to identify trends and governance patterns in environmental management.
• Cartography and GIS tools: To visualize the spatial evolution of urbanization and identify areas under environmental stress.

2.3. Understanding Khenchela: A Territory in Transformation

The city of Khenchela serves as a relevant case study for several reasons:

• It is experiencing rapid and often uncontrolled urban growth, which exacerbates environmental imbalances.
• Located in a fragile steppe region, it faces increasing pressure on its natural resources.
• The city faces urban governance challenges linked to planning processes that are sometimes disconnected from local realities.
• It represents a typical example of a medium-sized Algerian city, providing lessons applicable to other similar contexts.

2.4. Spatial and Temporal Scope of Research

• Spatial scope: The research focuses on the urban perimeter of the municipality of Khenchela, including its recent extensions and peripheral zones affected by urbanization.
• Temporal scope: The analysis covers the period from 2000 to 2025, enabling the study of major urban and environmental transformations over a span of twenty-five years.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Overview of the City of Khenchela

3.1.1. Geological Behavior of the Khenchela Region

The geological behavior of the study area builds upon numerous previous works conducted on the Aurès Massif, the high steppe plains, and the surrounding wetlands. These studies have primarily focused on stratigraphic, geomorphological, sedimentological, and structural aspects.

According to stratigraphic inventories established by several geologists, the oldest formations in the region date back to the Triassic period, while the most recent ones belong to the Quaternary. Since the Triassic era, the area has been subject to varied and heterogeneously thick epicontinental deposits. During this period, the pre-Saharan region served as a sedimentary accumulation platform characterized by successive and diverse deposits.

From a tectonic viewpoint, the region is linked to the Tunisian Atlas, separated from the Saharan Atlas by the Aurès Massif, which rises to 2328 m. The territory of Khenchela Province can be divided into three major morph structural zones [8] as shown in

Table 2. Morph-structural zoning of the Khenchela region.

Geographic Orientation	Description
North	The Miocene basin of Timgad and Douffana a flat, steppe-like area bordering the Garaat El Taref depression.
West and Center	The periclinal termination of the Aurès range, characterized by the presence of Triassic diapirs.
South	The Nememcha Mountains, followed further south by a flat zone forming the northern margin of the chotts (salt lakes) region.

.

The territory is located to the north of the South Atlas flexure and is characterized by a rugged mountainous relief. Its geological structure includes two principal families of faults: major ones oriented east–west and northeast–southwest, and smaller secondary faults oriented northwest–southeast. Most of these faults are vertical in nature, shaping the region’s distinct geomorphological features. Triassic diapirs predominantly situated in the eastern part of the area typically ascend along zones of tectonic weakness, taking advantage of existing fractures to reach the surface. From a lithological standpoint, the subsoil exhibits diverse formations composed of limestone, marl, clay, gypsum, sand, sandstone, and conglomerates [8] as shown in Figure 3.

3.1.2. Dynamics of Urban Expansion in the City

Urban planning instruments play a central role in territorial management. In Algeria, the Algerian government has established urban planning instruments, notably the Master Plan for Urban Development (MPLUUP) and the Land Use Plan (LUP), which are forward-looking tools designed to anticipate and guide territorial development. These plans divide the urban area into several sectors to be integrated and made sustainable while complying with architectural standards.

The transformations experienced by Khenchela have generated spatial dynamics within its urban structure, marked by expansion of the built environment in several directions, in line with the LUP and MPLUUP guidelines. These plans have divided the urban space into several categories as detailed in

Table 3. Land use zoning and urban development sectors in Khenchela.

Category	Description	Details/Notes
Built-up areas for short- and long-term development	Areas planned for immediate and future construction.	Subdivided into: - 9 short-term sectors - 7 long-term sectors
Future urbanization sectors	Zones reserved to meet long-term urban expansion needs.	Total surface area: approximately 74,712 hectares
Non-developable zones	Areas excluded from construction due to physical or regulatory constraints.	Subject to: - Public utility easements (gas, water, power networks) - Flood risk near Boughelal River - Steep slopes and protected areas [17]

.

Land ownership constitutes a major structural issue that strongly influences urban morphology. It is shaped by social and socio-economic factors that have led to the emergence of informal neighborhoods consuming large areas of land. The MPLUUP attempted to integrate these areas through regularization and urban inclusion policies. However, urbanization has extended into these zones, while other forms of unregulated housing continue to emerge, leading to high land consumption.

This expansion pattern reflects a critical spatial threshold: the built-up area of Khenchela has effectively saturated the entire municipal territory, leaving virtually no intra-communal land reserves for further development. Due to this expansion and the shortage of developable land reserves, the city was forced to expand its urban area southward toward Ensigha and northward toward El Hamma. Consequently, an intercommunal development plan was devised, encompassing Khenchela, El Hamma, and Ensigha.

This excessive land consumption created scarcity, driving up real estate prices. In some areas, land prices reached 50,000 DZD per square meter. This situation fostered the growth of informal settlements on the periphery through off-record land purchases or illegal occupation of state-owned property, thus intensifying spontaneous housing and the emergence of poverty belts around the city.

3.1.3. Factors of Urban Growth in Khenchela

Khenchela is one of Algeria’s medium-sized cities and exhibits demographic characteristics that give it significant importance in the national urban and population network. The province recorded notable population growth between 1998 and 2016, reaching approximately 440,280 inhabitants, with an annual increase rate of 1.85%. This demographic dynamic has fueled accelerated urban growth over the past two decades, driven by several natural, economic, and ecological factors.

• Natural Growth Factor
  The rise in population growth rates is one of the main drivers of urbanization. Natural population increase is a key factor in estimating overall growth. In Khenchela, urban expansion is largely due to the rising number of births, reaching 8218 in 2016, while deaths remained relatively low, not exceeding 700 cases in the entire province.
• Ecological Factor
  This factor refers to the importance of location and economic activity in attracting individuals seeking employment. It contributed to migratory movements toward Khenchela, especially during the 1970s when the state invested in heavy and manufacturing industries. During that period, the city hosted the wood and textile factory (SNLB), employing over 1200 workers, and the textiles and fabrics factory (SONITEX), employing 1000 workers—figures far greater than in later years.
  This industrial development drew many people from surrounding rural areas into the city, significantly influencing its economic and industrial profile. Over time, these industries stimulated income growth for workers in primary and commercial sectors, contributing to the visible acceleration of urban growth.
• Political and Administrative Factor

As an administrative center, Khenchela’s political and administrative function constitutes an essential territorial dimension tied closely to the regional governance structure. When Khenchela was elevated to the rank of wilaya (province) through the administrative reorganization initiated in 1984, it became an urban hub with enhanced capacity to harness its economic and social potential (Figure 4).

As the provincial capital, it centralized administrative and judicial institutions. Efforts were directed toward improving administrative services and citizen accessibility, helping to stimulate urban space and redistribute certain functions toward neighboring towns. Thus, the political and administrative factor played a decisive role in strengthening urban functions and accelerating Khenchela’s growth (Figure 4).

3.1.4. Environmental Constraints and Pressures

The urban environments of many Algerian cities, including those located in the High Plains such as Khenchela, face multiple environmental constraints and pressures stemming from population growth, uncontrolled urban expansion, and insufficient territorial governance. These pressures affect living conditions, local ecosystems, and overall urban sustainability.

First, the continued reduction in green spaces is a major constraint. Urban sprawl, the conversion of farmland, and the prioritization of collective housing projects have led to a severe decline in vegetated areas, heightening urban heat islands and reducing the ecosystem’s capacity for self-regeneration.

Second, pollution and waste management issues represent growing environmental stressors. Insufficient treatment infrastructure, rising waste production, and the absence of waste-sorting systems exacerbate soil and water degradation. These problems are particularly acute in city outskirts, where uncontrolled dumping proliferates due to weak enforcement.

Additionally, the spread of informal housing represents a major structural constraint. The development of spontaneous neighborhoods on unprepared land disrupts ecological balance, occupies sensitive natural zones, obstructs water flow paths, and exposes residents to environmental risks such as landslides and flooding.

Lastly, the weak integration of environmental considerations into local urban planning policies amplifies these vulnerabilities. Planning documents (MPLUUP, LUP) often emphasize housing demand rather than eco-urban solutions such as green corridors, sustainable water management, or limiting land consumption. This institutional shortcoming generates an imbalance between urban development, environmental protection, and quality of life.

Thus, both natural constraints and human-induced pressures highlight the urgent need to revise planning strategies to achieve truly sustainable and resilient urban development in cities such as Khenchela.

3.1.5. Environmental Public Policies

Environmental public policies encompass all strategies, programs, legislative instruments, and institutional mechanisms established by the state and local authorities to protect the environment, ensure sustainable resource management, and reduce the pressures generated by human activities. They aim to establish a governance model capable of integrating ecological dimensions into economic, urban, and social decisions.

In urban contexts, these policies revolve around several key axes:

• Prevention and reduction in pollution (air, water, soil, waste).
• Sustainable land management and protection of sensitive areas.
• Preservation of biodiversity and landscapes.
• Promotion of energy transition.
• Adaptation to climate change.

Systematic integration of sustainability principles into urban planning documents (MPLUUP, LUP, MDP, master plans).

They also rely on a participatory approach involving citizens, local institutions, and economic actors to ensure more inclusive and effective territorial governance. Regular evaluation of these policies helps identify weaknesses, such as poor institutional coordination, insufficient funding, or lack of environmental oversight, and supports improving local authorities’ performance in managing the urban environment.

3.2. Territorial and Environmental Analysis of the City of Khenchela

3.2.1. Analysis of Urban and Environmental Dynamics in Khenchela

The analysis of urban and environmental dynamics in Khenchela is based on a scientific reconstruction drawing from trends observed in medium-sized cities of Algeria’s eastern High Plains areas characterized by sustained demographic growth, rapid urbanization, and high ecological sensitivity. This section explores several dimensions: the city’s spatial evolution, urban structure, environmental pressures, quality of urban life, and the limitations of local public environmental management policies.

• Spatial and Morphological Evolution of the City

Since the 1980s, the city of Khenchela has undergone significant spatial transformation, primarily through urban expansion extending toward El Hamma in the north and Ensigha in the south. This expansion has been largely driven by demographic pressure and the availability of developable land. Spatial analyses and cartographic data highlight three concentric layers within the city’s morphology: the historic core, consisting of the old medina and the colonial district; the pre-2000 extensions, characterized by single-family housing and the first social housing initiatives; and the post-2000 extensions, marked by the development of collective housing, subdivisions, and new promotional projects.

Major road networks, particularly the district roads and national routes, have played a decisive role in guiding Khenchela’s urban expansion. These transportation corridors have encouraged linear urban growth along their axes, facilitated the formation of radial development patterns extending outward from the city core, and contributed to increasing morphological fragmentation within the urban fabric.

Urban sprawl in Khenchela has frequently taken place at the expense of environmentally valuable and vulnerable areas. Expansion has encroached upon steppe ecosystems, consumed peri-urban agricultural lands, and extended into ecologically sensitive zones such as valleys and natural drainage channels (talwegs). This pattern of land use has intensified environmental degradation and disrupted the region’s ecological balance. Quantitative GIS analysis reveals that the built-up area expanded from approximately 485 ha in 2000 to 1230 ha in 2023, representing a 153.6% increase over 23 years and an average annual expansion rate of 6.7%. The Urban Expansion Intensity Index (UEII) peaked during 2008–2015 at 0.42, coinciding with major social housing programs. Landscape pattern analysis using fragmentation metrics shows an increase in patch density from 12.3 patches/km² (2000) to 28.7 patches/km² (2023), indicating growing spatial fragmentation. Pressure zone overlay mapping identifies three critical hotspots: the Boughelal River floodplain (where 18% of post-2000 construction occurred in flood-risk zones), the southern slopes toward Ensigha (gradient > 15%, housing 12% of informal settlements), and the western agricultural fringe (where 340 ha of farmland was converted to urban use between 2008 and 2023).

3.2.2. Environmental Pressures and Constraints

Khenchela faces a combination of environmental constraints typical of semi-arid regions, magnified by urban dynamics.

• Reduction in Green Spaces and Land Artificialization

Vegetated areas in Khenchela have declined significantly over recent decades, resulting in a noticeable loss of natural cooling zones. This reduction has contributed to rising urban temperatures, with increases estimated between +2 °C and +3 °C during summer months. Consequently, the balance between built-up areas and open “breathing” spaces has been disrupted, compromising the city’s ecological equilibrium and overall environmental comfort.

Between 1998 and 2023, green spaces decreased from 45 ha to 33 ha (a loss of 12 ha), demonstrating mounting pressure from urban expansion. The green space per capita fell from 6.1 m² to 3 m², well below the WHO standard of 9 m². This decline reveals the failure of urban planning policies to preserve or compensate for lost green areas, resulting in a deteriorating urban quality of life and a concerning ecological deficit for a medium-sized city like Khenchela (see

Table 4. Evolution of green spaces and green area per capita in Khenchela (1998–2023).

Year	Green Spaces (ha)	m2 per Inhabitant	WHO Standard (9 m2/hab)	Assessment
1998	45 ha	6.1 m2/hab	Below standard	Insufficient
2010	38 ha	4.3 m2/hab	Below standard	Low
2023	33 ha	3.0 m2/hab	Below standard	Very low

).

Figure 5 confirms a steady decline from 45 ha in 1998 to 33 ha in 2023. The continuous decrease highlights urban encroachment on natural spaces and insufficient integration of environmental measures into planning. Furthermore, the ratio of green space per inhabitant dropped from 6.1 m² in 1998 to 3 m² in 2023, a reduction by nearly half over 25 years. This reflects intensified land consumption and the lack of new green space development in newer neighborhoods.

• Pollution and Waste Management Issues

Khenchela faces several major environmental pressures that stem from inadequate waste management practices. These include illegal dumping at the city’s entrances, the overloading of the technical landfill, inefficient and irregular waste collection systems, and increasing soil and stream pollution in peripheral zones. Collectively, these issues have led to visible landscape degradation, heightened health risks for the population, and the progressive loss of surrounding agricultural land, thereby undermining both environmental quality and urban sustainability.

• Informal Housing and Irregular Land Occupation

Unregulated urban extensions in Khenchela have contributed to significant spatial and infrastructural challenges. These informal developments often occur in hazardous zones such as steep slopes and flood-prone channels, placing populations at an environmental risk. They also exert growing pressure on essential infrastructure networks, particularly water supply and sanitation systems, while simultaneously lacking adequate public amenities. As a result, many of these areas remain under-equipped and poorly serviced, reinforcing socio-spatial inequalities within the urban fabric.

• Pressure on Water Resources

In Khenchela’s semi-arid context, water scarcity represents one of the most critical environmental concerns. The city faces continuous groundwater depletion due to limited natural recharge and excessive extraction rates. Overexploitation of wells has further strained local aquifers, while inefficient infrastructure leads to substantial water losses, with leakage rates reaching up to 35%. These combined factors severely challenge the sustainable management of water resources and threaten the city’s long-term environmental resilience.

• Climate Vulnerability

The city of Khenchela is increasingly exposed to climate-related vulnerabilities. It experiences intense summer heat waves that contribute to thermal discomfort and energy stress, along with storm water runoff risks during episodes of heavy rainfall that frequently cause localized flooding. Additionally, the city suffers from growing water stress due to irregular precipitation patterns and limited water resource availability, further amplifying its environmental fragility.

3.2.3. Quality of Urban Life

Clear disparities exist between the city’s functional zones. The city center offers the best access to services and infrastructure but suffers from traffic congestion and elevated pollution. The old periphery displays intermediate conditions and adequate accessibility yet irregular water supply and limited green spaces. New extensions demonstrate the greatest weaknesses: poor service coverage, insufficient road infrastructure, summer water scarcity, and an almost total absence of green areas. This uneven distribution reveals fast, poorly controlled urbanization and growing environmental pressure in newly urbanized districts as detailed in

Table 5. Urban quality of life by functional zone in Khenchela.

Indicator	City Center	Old Periphery	New Extensions
Access to services	Very good	Moderate	Poor
Roads and mobility	Congested	Acceptable	Insufficient
Drinking water	Stable	Irregular	Weak in summer
Green spaces	Low	Very low	Almost nonexistent
Pollution	High	Moderate	Increasing

.

3.2.4. Limitations of Local Planning Policies

As detailed in

Table 6. Institutional and operational gaps in urban environmental management.

Key Issue	Description	Examples/Implications
Poor Integration of Environmental Considerations	Urban planning documents such as the MPLUUP and LUP include ecological goals but remain poorly implemented and rarely updated.	Weak application of environmental policies and limited impact on sustainable urban management.
Fragmented Governance	Coordination among key urban actors is limited, including the municipal council, technical services, the environmental directorate, the urban planning office, and land management agencies.	Overlapping responsibilities, lack of coherent decision-making, and inefficient project execution.
Insufficient Resources	Chronic shortages in financial resources, monitoring systems, and digital planning tools (such as GIS and performance indicators).	Inability to track environmental progress, leading to weak institutional performance.

, Khenchela’s environmental governance is hindered by critical institutional and operational shortcomings. The weak integration of ecological principles into urban planning, combined with fragmented coordination among local institutions and insufficient technical and financial resources, has significantly limited the effectiveness of sustainable development initiatives. These factors collectively constrain the city’s capacity to manage environmental challenges and adapt to urban growth pressures. Specifically, coordination failures manifest in three documented cases: (1) the Municipal Assembly (APC)-approved residential subdivisions in 2019 in zones designated as non-developable by the Urban Planning Directorate (DUCH), resulting in construction on flood-prone land along the Boughelal wadi; (2) the Environmental Directorate (DEW)-issued pollution alerts for two industrial zones in 2021, but the municipality lacked legal authority to enforce corrective measures, as enforcement falls under the Forestry Department (DCF) jurisdiction; (3) the Hydraulic Services (DHW) and the municipal technical services independently developed conflicting water distribution plans in 2022, leading to resource duplication and persistent supply gaps in the southern extensions. These cases illustrate how the absence of a Joint Urban–Environmental Commission (Commission Mixte Urbanisme-Environnement, CMUE) a permanent inter-institutional body bringing together the APC, DUCH, DEW, DCF, and DHW under a single decision-making framework produces overlapping mandates, contradictory decisions, and governance paralysis.

3.3. Critical Review of Planning Policies (MPLUUP,–LUP, MDP)

The existing planning documents show positive elements but remain partial and insufficient to fully address Khenchela’s urban challenges. The MPLUUP [16] stands out for clearly defining buildable and restricted zones a solid base for managing urban sprawl. The LUP contributes to limited densification in select neighborhoods, while the MDP focuses on specific improvements (roads, lighting) but lacks comprehensive coverage (see

Table 7. Summary analysis of urban planning documents in Khenchela.

Document	Strengths
MPLUUP [6]	Clear identification of developable and undevelopable zones
LUP	Controlled densification in some districts
MDP	Targeted programs for road and public lighting improvements

). A deeper empirical assessment of policy implementation reveals significant gaps between planning intentions and outcomes. The MPLUUP [16], while identifying 74,712 ha of future urbanization sectors, failed to enforce ecological easements: field verification shows that 23% of designated non-developable zones have experienced unauthorized construction. The LUP’s densification objectives achieved only 41% of their target density in designated zones, while unplanned peripheral areas exceeded projected density by 180%. The MDP’s infrastructure improvements, although completed in 67% of planned projects, were concentrated in the city center (78% of budget allocation), reinforcing center–periphery disparities rather than achieving equitable service distribution. These findings demonstrate that the plans lack binding enforcement mechanisms, environmental monitoring indicators, and feedback loops for adaptive management.

These structural weaknesses hinder effective urban management. Key issues such as poor environmental integration, weak institutional coordination, reactive governance, and limited civic participation lead to serious consequences, including urbanization in fragile zones, incoherent projects, and public disengagement. Overall, this reveals a fragmented, short-sighted, and exclusionary urban governance system; see

Table 8. Main urban governance issues in Khenchela.

Identified Problem	Example	Consequence
Poor integration of environmental dimension	Lack of ecological assessment in LUP	Urbanization of fragile zones
Institutional fragmentation	Weak coordination (municipality–Urban Planning Direction–Forestry Department)	Inconsistent projects
Reactive rather than proactive approach	Problem-solving after occurrence	Continuous degradation
Limited citizen participation	No real public inquiries	Social rejection of projects

.

3.4. Toward a Balance Between Development and Environment

Analysis indicates that equilibrium has not yet been achieved. Major obstacles include: Each of these obstacles operates through specific mechanisms that merit elaboration. The limited availability of buildable land results from the convergence of topographic constraints (steep slopes exceeding 15% on the city’s western and southern boundaries), regulatory restrictions (non-developable easements covering 22% of the municipal territory), and prior land consumption by informal settlements (estimated at 180 ha). Uncontrolled urbanization is perpetuated by weak enforcement of building permits, with field surveys indicating that approximately 35% of constructions in peripheral zones lack formal authorization. The poor integration of natural hazards reflects the absence of updated risk mapping: the most recent flood risk map dates from 2008 and does not account for post-2010 construction in the Boughelal floodplain. The green space deficit is structural, as no new public green spaces have been created since 2012 despite a 15% population increase. Water and waste management deficiencies stem from infrastructure aging (average pipe network age: 28 years) and insufficient budgetary allocation (environmental services receive less than 8% of the municipal budget). Finally, weak governance structures are characterized by the absence of a dedicated environmental unit within the municipal administration and the lack of performance evaluation mechanisms for planning document implementation.

• Limited availability of buildable land.
• Uncontrolled urbanization.
• Poor integration of natural hazards (floods, landslides).
• Deficit of green spaces.
• Outdated waste and water management practices.
• Weak local governance structures.

4. Conclusions

This study on Khenchela’s urban expansion in Algeria’s semi-arid High Plains reveals a critical imbalance between rapid, uncontrolled growth—driven by 1.85% annual population increases, migration, and administrative centralization—and severe environmental degradation, manifesting in green space losses (45 ha in 1998 to 33 ha in 2023, per capita from 6.1 m² to 3 m² below WHO’s 9 m² standard). Moreover, aquifer overexploitation with 35% leakage, waste dumping overloads, informal settlements on steep/flood-prone lands, pollution exceeding health thresholds, and climate stressors like +2–3 °C heat islands and flash floods are also a problem. It is important to acknowledge that the relationship between urban expansion and environmental degradation in Khenchela operates within a multi-causal framework. While this study demonstrates strong spatial and temporal correlations between urbanization trends and environmental decline, external factors also contribute to environmental pressures. Climate variability, characterized by a documented 15% decrease in average annual precipitation over 2000–2023 (ONS/ANM data), independently exacerbates water stress and ecosystem fragility. Regional economic restructuring following the decline of state-owned industries (SNLB closure in 2002, SONITEX downsizing) triggered socioeconomic shifts that accelerated informal urbanization. Furthermore, national policy frameworks, including the 2006 housing emergency law, generated construction pressures that transcend local governance capacity. The causal argument is therefore framed as contributory rather than deterministic: urban expansion is identified as a primary amplifier of environmental degradation, operating in conjunction with, not in isolation from, climatic, economic, and institutional co-factors.

4.1. Identified Challenges

• Spatial and Ecological Dynamics: Peripheral sprawl along district roads and national routes axes consumes steppe/agricultural lands, fragments morphology into historic cores, pre-2000 extensions, and post-2000 collectives, eroding biodiversity and natural drainage while amplifying urban heat and runoff risks.
• Governance and Policy Shortcomings: MPLUUP [6], LUP, and MDP suffer weak ecological integration, outdated zoning (e.g., 74,712 ha future sectors vs. non-developables ignored), fragmented actor coordination (communal, environmental directorate, urban offices), and chronic resource deficits in GIS monitoring/funding, yielding socio-spatial divides: congested/high-pollution centers, irregular-service peripheries, and amenity-poor new zones.
• Socio-Economic Pressures: Natural growth (8218 births/2016), industrial legacies (SNLB/SONITEX), and housing crises fuel informal “poverty belts,” land price spikes (50,000 DZD/m²), and inequities in water/air quality, waste access, and mobility.

4.2. Comprehensive Recommendations

• Resilience-Focused Planning: Revise MPLUUP/LUP with mandatory environmental impact audits, polycentric zoning for compact forms, green quotas (e.g., corridors restoring 9 m²/hab), and soft mobility (pedestrian/bike axes reducing car dependency). Specifically: (a) achieve 9 m²/inhabitant green space within 10 years by creating 78 ha of new green corridors along the Boughelal River and Chelia foothills, with annual planting targets of 8 ha/year under the responsibility of the Municipal Technical Services and the Forestry Department; (b) reduce network water losses from 35% to below 20% by 2030 through a phased pipe replacement program (estimated cost: 2.4 billion DZD, priority zones: southern extensions and old periphery); (c) establish a mandatory Environmental Impact Assessment protocol for all new LUP zones exceeding 5 ha, with review by an independent inter-institutional committee. Potential funding sources include the National Environmental Protection Fund (FNPE), the Communal Solidarity Fund (FCS), the national AADL/LPP housing–environment budget lines, and international cooperation mechanisms such as the Green Climate Fund (GCF) and the Mediterranean Action Plan (UNEP-MAP), which specifically target semi-arid urban resilience projects in developing countries.
• Adaptive Governance: Foster inter-municipal pacts (Khenchela-El Hamma-Ensigha), participatory platforms for citizens/experts, and digital tools (GIS for real-time sprawl tracking, waste–energy pilots). The inter-municipal coordination pact should include: quarterly joint planning sessions between Khenchela, El Hamma, and Ensigha municipalities; a shared GIS platform updated biannually for real-time sprawl monitoring (implementation: DUCH with University of Tebessa technical support); and a citizen participation charter mandating public consultation for all projects exceeding 500 housing units or affecting designated ecological zones.
• Resource Strategies: Upgrade water networks (cut leakages < 20%), implement integrated waste systems (sorting/recycling), and protect wetlands/valleys via easements.
• Monitoring and Equity: Annual resilience indices, equity-focused subsidies for vulnerable zones, and capacity-building for local institutions.

4.3. Comparative Perspective with Similar Urban Contexts

Khenchela’s challenges resonate with those documented in comparable semi-arid cities. In M’sila (Algeria), Naghel et al. [12] identified similar waste management failures driven by rapid demographic growth and institutional fragmentation, with waste generation per capita increasing by 32% over a decade. In Batna, another medium-sized Algerian city, Salaheddine et al. [30] documented comparable patterns of peripheral sprawl consuming agricultural land, though Batna benefited from stronger inter-municipal coordination through its metropolitan planning framework. Internationally, Amman (Jordan), as analyzed by Radaideh and Al-Radaideh [7], faces similar water stress (leakage rates of 40%) in a semi-arid context but has implemented integrated water-energy management strategies that offer transferable lessons for Khenchela. Similarly, Mexican semi-arid communities studied by Lizárraga-Mendiola et al. [2] demonstrate that participatory governance models can significantly improve resource management outcomes. These comparisons reveal that Khenchela’s challenges are structurally common to Global South semi-arid cities, while its specific governance fragmentation and planning enforcement gaps represent distinctive vulnerabilities requiring targeted institutional reforms.

These evidence-based recommendations, grounded in sustainable development principles, offer a transferable framework for medium-sized cities in the Global South facing comparable environmental and governance challenges.