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Article

Effect of a Short-Term Training Program on Knowledge of Rip Currents: A Study with University Students

by
Sergio López-García
1,2,3,
Brais Ruibal-Lista
3,4,*,
Alba González-Palomares
1,5 and
Pelayo Diez-Fernández
2,3
1
Facultad de Educación, Universidad de Salamanca, 37008 Salamanca, Spain
2
Facultad de Educación, Universidad Pontificia de Salamanca, 37002 Salamanca, Spain
3
Grupo de Investigación en Actividad Física, Deporte y Salud (GIADES), Universidad Pontificia de Salamanca, 37002 Salamanca, Spain
4
EUM Fray Luis de León, Universidad Católica de Ávila, 05005 Valladolid, Spain
5
Grupo de Investigación en Actividad Física, Movimiento y Educación (MOVERE), Universidad de Salamanca, 37008 Salamanca, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Safety 2025, 11(3), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11030092
Submission received: 4 July 2025 / Revised: 14 September 2025 / Accepted: 15 September 2025 / Published: 22 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Risk Assessment—Health and Safety)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

Drowning is considered a global public health problem, and rip currents are responsible for numerous emergencies on beaches worldwide. The literature indicates a significant lack of knowledge and training among the population regarding rip currents and aquatic safety. The purpose of this study was to examine whether a training program on aquatic safety education can help prevent drownings and enhance knowledge about rip currents. A total of 93 university students completed a 60 min training program led by lifeguard instructors. A questionnaire focused on sea safety content, specifically on rip currents, was administered in three different phases: before the educational session (PT), one week after (T1), and eight weeks after the training (T2). Before the training, 34.4% of the participants had difficulties identifying the correct swimming zone (zones 1, 7, and 8). However, after the training, this percentage significantly increased to 84.9% at T1 and 79.6% at T2. Significant differences were also observed in the four variables analyzed: selection of the swimming zone (x2 = 24.143; p < 0.001), definition (x2 = 47.643; p < 0.001), identification (x2 = 95.051; p < 0.001), and response to a rip current (x2 = 21.918; p < 0.001). A 60 min training session can have a positive effect and significantly increase knowledge on how to define, identify, and respond to a situation involving rip currents. These findings reinforce the value of training, providing a solid foundation for drowning prevention.

1. Introduction

The World Health Organization [1] has indicated that drowning is a public health issue that causes hundreds of thousands of deaths annually worldwide, being identified as a “silent killer” [2,3]. Despite the difficulty in obtaining accurate data due to underreporting and the lack of reliable information in some countries, various studies have positioned drowning mortality as one of the most frequent causes of death in childhood and adulthood [4,5,6,7,8].
On the other hand, beaches are fundamental spaces in the daily lives of many people globally, but the lack of education on safety, prevention, and risk identification [9] and the little attention paid to warning signs by people in these natural aquatic environments [10] pose a public health challenge.
In this context, one type of current can be found when waves approach the shoreline at an oblique angle, generating a circulation parallel to the coast known as longshore drift. This current plays a key role in the longitudinal transport of sediments, mainly affecting the coastal strip between the breaker zone and the swash zone [11]. On the other hand, rip currents are strong, narrow, and fast-flowing water currents that occur on many beaches [12]. They are identified as the leading cause of incidents and drownings in coastal environments [13,14], accounting for approximately 20% of drownings on Australian beaches over the past decade [15]. These currents can appear on any beach where waves break continuously along the shoreline [16], and their occurrence is influenced by factors such as wave energy, seabed slope, and the morphological configuration of the coastal environment. Scientific literature distinguishes different types of rip currents according to their frequency, duration, and origin. Thus, permanent rip currents, which persist constantly in areas where the underwater morphology favors their development, such as persistent channels between sandbars [17]; temporary rip currents, which emerge intermittently depending on variations in hydrodynamic and morphological conditions [18]; and so-called flash rips, characterized by sudden onset, short duration, and high intensity, commonly associated with extreme wave events or abrupt changes in coastal dynamics [19].
The identification and description of these types of currents is fundamental both for the geomorphological analysis of the coastal environment and for coastal risk management and beach user safety. In this regard, it is crucial to know how to act when caught in a rip current: it is recommended to remain calm, float, assess the direction of the current, and avoid swimming against it. Instead, one should try to swim parallel to the shoreline, heading towards areas where waves break and foam forms, which indicate sectors of lower energy and higher probability of escape [18].
It is essential to provide training to the general population to effectively identify and prevent risks associated with aquatic environments [20], since the widespread lack of knowledge in this area prevents society from recognizing and understanding these dangers, thereby exposing individuals to hazardous situations [18,21,22,23].
This lack of awareness not only compromises the safety of swimmers but also places rescue teams at risk, as they must intervene under potentially dangerous conditions [24,25,26]. For this reason, investing in educational and training programs specialized in water safety becomes a key strategy to reduce the number of incidents and to ensure protection for everyone in aquatic environments.
Within this framework, acquiring specific knowledge about rip currents emerges as a priority, given that they represent one of the main threats in coastal areas and that 58% of drowning cases in Spain occur at the beach [20]. Consequently, knowledge about rip currents must be considered a fundamental educational component to mitigate drowning cases worldwide [21,23,27,28], particularly because evidence shows that, through brief training, it is possible to acquire basic safety concepts related to beach environments [9,20,23,29,30] as well as to first aid [31].
Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine whether a training program on aquatic safety education can enhance knowledge about rip currents and help prevent drownings.

2. Methodology

2.1. Procedure and Participants

University students were invited to participate in the research, informed about the study, and provided consent through a signed document. Written informed consent was obtained from the participants for participation and the publication of all images, results, and other data included in the study. The participating students were not enrolled in any specific subject; they took part voluntarily and were enrolled in the Bachelor’s Degree in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences. They had not received any prior training in this area. To assess the impact of the training, a questionnaire on aquatic safety previously employed in research [31] was utilized.
This research was carried out in three phases. The initial questionnaire (PT) was administered on the first day of the course. Subsequently, participants received a face-to-face session of approximately 60 min on rip currents and beach safety. From the outset, participants were informed of the complete study procedure, including the different assessment phases. Following the methodological design, one week later they were asked to complete the questionnaire again (T1). Eight weeks after that, the procedure was repeated (T2), thus allowing for the evaluation of knowledge retention [21,31].

2.2. Procedure

The questionnaire was distributed via the Google Forms® platform. The first page of the questionnaire provided participants with detailed information about the process, the overall purpose of their participation, anonymity policies, and the right to withdraw from the study at any time without justification.
To evaluate the participants’ ability to accurately identify a safe swimming area, an image of a beach divided into eight numbered zones (1 to 8) was presented via a Google Forms questionnaire. Participants were instructed to select the single zone where they would choose to swim. The responses were then exported to a spreadsheet for quantitative analysis. Based on the criteria established by Wilks et al. [31], zones 1, 7, and 8 were classified as safe. The proportion of correct responses was visually represented and superimposed onto the original image, resulting in Figure 1.
Figure 1 depicts a beach with a rip current located centrally—characterized by a darker, flatter area without breaking waves, flowing towards the left—flanked by two zones of breaking waves (zones 1 and 7–8), which were identified as relatively safer swimming areas.

2.3. Training

The educational program was designed and delivered by experts in Lifesaving and Lifeguarding. It involved an interactive lecture covering various topics related to aquatic safety, particularly at beaches, spanning 60 min.
The training session took place in a fully equipped classroom with digital support using Microsoft PowerPoint® software, comprising 20 slides. The presentation began with discussions on drowning, prevention, and beach safety, followed by detailed explanations on identifying rip currents. Different beach types and natural elements influencing them were discussed, followed by guidance on recognizing and responding to rip currents during emergencies.
Educational materials included images, videos, drawings, and text. Participants engaged with the instructor through analysis of safety videos and photographs of various beaches. Notably, the images used during the lecture differed from those presented in the questionnaire.

2.4. Evaluation

To evaluate responses, criteria based on pertinent literature regarding beach hazard identification were applied. Valid responses were those consistent with definitions found in the consulted literature.
For the purposes of this questionnaire on rip current knowledge, all the aforementioned aspects were considered valid criteria for scoring a response as correct regarding the definition, identification, and appropriate actions in the event of a rip current.
Specifically, acceptable definitions included descriptions such as strong channels or flows of water moving from shore to sea, channels formed between waves, or currents transporting water and sediments offshore [32,33,34,35]. Valid identification cues comprised features such as darker or deeper water areas, absence of wave action or foam, presence of debris or suspended sand, and the formation of sandbanks on the sides [17].
Finally, correct actions included recommendations to remain calm, avoid panic, swim parallel to the shore, seek assistance, and refrain from swimming against the current [17,18,36,37].

2.5. Data Analysis

Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS® software (version 26.0, SPSS Inc. IBM, Chicago, IL, USA). Descriptive statistics summarized the collected responses by converting raw data into categorical variables and expressing the results as percentages. Inferential statistics were then applied to explore associations between variables of interest.
Contingency tables were used to examine relationships between categorical variables, and Pearson’s Chi-square (χ2) test assessed whether observed frequencies significantly differed from expected ones under the null hypothesis of independence. Effect sizes were calculated using Cramer’s V for J × K tables and Phi for 2 × 2 tables, with values below 0.2 indicating weak associations, between 0.2 and 0.6 moderate associations, and above 0.6 strong associations [21].
Odds Ratios (OR) were also computed to estimate the likelihood of an event relative to its non-occurrence, providing an intuitive measure of the strength and direction of associations, particularly in case–control or cross-sectional designs. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05 to ensure that the reported associations were both valid and meaningful.

2.6. Ethics Committee

The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Salamanca under code 1272 and adhered to the guidelines set forth in the Helsinki Declaration [32].

3. Results

A total of 93 individuals participated in the study, comprising 72 males (77.4%) and 21 females (22.6%). The mean age was 19.8 ± 2.0 years. Residence was distributed with 17 participants (18.3%) living in coastal areas and 76 (81.7%) residing inland.
Prior to the training program, only 34.4% of participants were able to accurately identify any of the three designated safe zones (zones 1, 7, or 8). Following the intervention, this proportion increased markedly, reaching 84.9% at T1 and 79.6% at T2 (see Figure 1). The most significant improvement was observed in the selection of zone 7, indicating an enhanced ability to recognize the pattern of breaking waves as a key indicator of swimming safety subsequent to the training.
In addition to the results concerning the selection of bathing safes zones, it was observed that the correct definition of a rip current was 61.3% at PT, 93.5% at T1, and 79.6% at T2. Regarding the correct identification of a rip current, it was 29.0% at PT, 89.2% at T1, and 89.4% at T2. Lastly, the correct response to encountering a rip current was 68.8% at PT, 91.4% at T1, and 90.3% at T2 (Table 1).
Significant differences were observed among the four analyzed variables based on the Chi-square statistic (x2). These differences were noted in the selection of bathing safes zones (x2 = 24.143; p < 0.001), definition (x2 = 47.643; p < 0.001), identification (x2 = 95.051; p < 0.001), and response to a rip current (x2 = 21.918; p < 0.001) (Table 1).
Furthermore, the Cramer’s V statistic indicated a strong association in three variables (bathing zone: V = 0.479; df = 2; definition of rip current: V = 0.413; df = 2; identification of rip current: V = 0.587; df = 2), and a moderate association in one variable (response to a rip current: V = 0.280; df = 2) (Table 1).
Subsequently, a pairwise comparison with Bonferroni adjustment was conducted to analyze the same variables. Significant differences were observed in all analyzed variables between PT and T1: bathing zone (x2 = 49.354; p < 0.001), definition of rip current (x2 = 27.679; p < 0.001), identification of rip current (x2 = 69.772; p < 0.001), and response to a rip current (x2 = 14.879; p < 0.001) (Table 2).
The Phi statistic demonstrated a moderate association in three variables (bathing zone: V = 0.515; df = 1; definition of rip current: V = 0.360; df = 1; identification of rip current: V = 0.612; df = 1), and a weak association in one variable (response to a rip current: V = 0.272; df = 2). Additionally, in this 2 × 2 table analysis, Odds Ratios were calculated, revealing the following values (Bathing zone: OR = 3.813; Definition of rip current: OR = 2.234; Identification of rip current: OR = 3.538; Response to a rip current: OR = 1.825) (Table 2).
Finally, the same process was conducted between PT and T2. Significant differences were observed in all analyzed variables: bathing zone (x2 = 38.692; p < 0.001), definition of rip current (x2 = 30.067; p < 0.001), identification of rip current (x2 = 59.309; p < 0.001), and response to a rip current (x2 = 13.229; p < 0.001) (Table 3).
The Phi statistic demonstrated a moderate association in three variables (bathing zone: V = 0.415; df = 1; definition of rip current: V = 0.373; df = 1; identification of rip current: V = 0.565; df = 1), and a weak association in one variable (response to a rip current: V = 0.258; df = 2). Additionally, the Odds Ratios showed the following values (Bathing zone: OR = 2.939; Definition of rip current: OR = 2.234; Identification of rip current: OR = 3.239; Response to a rip current: OR = 1.765) (Table 3).

4. Discussion

The aim of this study was to assess students’ knowledge regarding rip currents, one of the leading causes of risk incidents in aquatic environments, and to evaluate the impact of a brief educational program on the assimilation of concepts to enhance aquatic safety. Rip currents pose significant risks at beaches and are responsible for a majority of rescues and drownings [38,39,40,41,42,43]. Therefore, it is imperative to pursue two key strategies: educating to prevent these risks and teaching how to respond to them effectively [16], highlighting the crucial role of educators as agents of behavioral change among their students regarding risk prevention [28]. The findings of this study indicate that, although students show some awareness of rip currents, their ability to correctly identify and describe them remains limited, which is consistent with prior research showing that many individuals lack the skills or knowledge to define or identify a rip current, particularly when assessed through videos or photographs of beaches, often leading to the selection of hazardous or unsuitable bathing areas [20,29,31,37,44,45,46,47].
In line with these results, studies highlight that even among university students, more than half claimed to be familiar with rip currents but were unable to describe how to identify them [20,48]. While a high percentage of respondents in different studies reported knowing how to act if caught in a rip current, the overall evidence suggests significant deficiencies in practical identification skills. These findings reinforce the importance of implementing well-structured educational programs that not only increase knowledge but also promote safer decision-making in aquatic environments. Future research should examine the long-term impact of brief educational interventions and their effectiveness in reducing risky behaviors at beaches.
Given the urgent need for training and education on identifying these risks, research in this field is essential. Similarly to this study, others have examined the effect of training, including in school students [31], finding that after receiving brief training, there is a significant improvement in respondents’ ability to define, recognize, and identify rip currents. Furthermore, it has been shown that after training and exposure to video images on aquatic safety, respondents demonstrate significant improvements in identifying and selecting safe bathing zones, as well as in their ability to escape a rip current, retaining these learnings for at least a month [44]. Additionally, following 12 sessions of maritime safety training delivered by lifeguard teams and researchers, 91% of beachgoers reported learning something new about rip currents, with 70% and 47% learning to identify and escape them, respectively [27]. These studies [44,47] also indicate that the indirect effects of participating in such programs include sharing what has been learned with family and friends.
In contrast, other studies have shown that only about 25–30% of respondents would actually swim parallel to the shore [37,44]. Finally, a limitation of the study, as noted by Sherker et al. [29], is the inability to use moving images or include other beach users, which could provide insights into the best bathing options or areas to avoid for safe enjoyment.
Similarly, as suggested by other authors, further research using moving images, videos [44], virtual reality in gaming [49], or artificial intelligence algorithms [50] are proposed as powerful tools to accurately represent risk and demonstrate the appropriate actions to be taken, aiming to achieve better outcomes and prevent injuries in natural aquatic environments. Additionally, longitudinal studies are needed to assess the long-term retention of this knowledge. Future research should also seek to expand the sample size and enhance participant diversity in terms of age, educational background, and geographic origin, in order to improve the generalizability of the findings and gain a more comprehensive understanding of public knowledge and behavior regarding rip current safety.
In addition to the findings of this study regarding students’ knowledge and identification of rip currents, it is important to consider the broader concept of water competence as an inclusive and multifaceted construct underpinning aquatic safety education and drowning prevention. Stallman et al. present water competence as encompassing physical, cognitive, and affective skills that collectively reduce an individual’s risk of drowning [51]. This set of skills requires that educational programs go beyond the mere transmission of knowledge, also developing practical skills and appropriate attitudes through pedagogies that are suitable for each stage of development. The improvements observed here in recognizing and responding to rip currents after brief educational interventions can be viewed as a component of this broader water competence. To achieve effective and sustained risk prevention in natural aquatic environments, these competencies must be further explored, developed, and assessed using validated educational and evaluative tools.
It is also important to emphasize that training alone is insufficient; environmental cues, such as signage and the presence of lifeguards, are essential to ensure safety and enable timely rescue. Drowning is a multifactorial phenomenon that demands a multi-strategy approach, as a brief, one-off training session does not necessarily translate into sustained behavioral change.

5. Limitations

The data were collected exclusively at a single Spanish institution, which may limit the broader applicability of the results and should be acknowledged as a limitation regarding the generalizability of the findings.
It is important to acknowledge that participants were enrolled in a university course, representing a convenience sample, which may have introduced recruitment and/or sampling bias and limits the generalizability of the findings.

6. Conclusions

This study highlights the importance of aquatic safety education in improving knowledge about rip currents and preventing drowning. The findings suggest that brief training can enhance students’ awareness and preparedness; however, further research is required to confirm its long-term impact. Overall, these results reinforce the value of integrating aquatic safety programs into broader educational strategies as a means to reduce drowning risks and promote safer behaviors in aquatic environments.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.L.-G. and P.D.-F.; methodology, A.G.-P. and P.D.-F.; software, B.R.-L.; validation, S.L.-G. and P.D.-F.; formal analysis, A.G.-P. and B.R.-L.; investigation, S.L.-G.; resources, B.R.-L.; data curation, B.R.-L. and A.G.-P.; writing—original draft preparation, P.D.-F. and B.R.-L.; writing—review and editing, A.G.-P. and S.L.-G.; visualization, A.G.-P.; supervision, P.D.-F. and B.R.-L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of University of Salamanca on 30.01.2025 with registration number 1272, for studies involving humans.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. Written informed consent has been obtained from the patient(s) to publish this paper.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, P.D-F., upon reasonable request. The data are not publicly available due to privacy and ethical restrictions.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Safety 11 00092 g001
Figure 1. Identification of a Rip Current and Safe Swimming Areas in a Natural Beach Setting.
Figure 1. Identification of a Rip Current and Safe Swimming Areas in a Natural Beach Setting.
Safety 11 00092 g001
Table 1. Proportion of Respondents Who Correctly Identify Beach Zones and Safety Measures (n = 93).
Table 1. Proportion of Respondents Who Correctly Identify Beach Zones and Safety Measures (n = 93).
VariablesPTT1T2x2SigCramér’s VContingency Coefficient
Safe Zone (%)34.484.979.624.143<0.001 *0.4790.432
Definition (%)61.393.594.647.643<0.001 *0.4130.382
Identification (%)29.089.284.996.051<0.001 *0.5870.506
Response (%) 68.891.490.321.918<0.001 *0.2800.270
x2 = Chi squared; Sig. = statistical significance; * = p < 0.05.
Table 2. Association between the PT and T1 (n = 93).
Table 2. Association between the PT and T1 (n = 93).
VariablesPTT1x2SigPhiOdds Ratio
Swim Zone (%)34.484.949.354<0.001 *0.5153.813
Definition (%)61.393.527.679<0.001 *0.3862.234
Identification (%) 29.089.269.772<0.001 *0.6123.538
Response (%) 68.891.414.879<0.001 *0.2831.825
x2 = Chi squared; Sig. = statistical significance; * = p < 0.05.
Table 3. Association between the PT and the T2 (n = 93).
Table 3. Association between the PT and the T2 (n = 93).
VariablesPTT2X2p Valor *PhiOdds Ratio
Swim Zone (%)34.479.638.692<0.001 *0.4562.939
Definition (%)61.394.630.067<0.001 *0.4022.234
Identification (%) 29.084.959.309<0.001 *0.5653.239
Response (%) 68.890.313.229<0.001 *0.2671.765
x2 = Chi squared; Sig.= statistical significance; * = p < 0.05.
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López-García, S.; Ruibal-Lista, B.; González-Palomares, A.; Diez-Fernández, P. Effect of a Short-Term Training Program on Knowledge of Rip Currents: A Study with University Students. Safety 2025, 11, 92. https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11030092

AMA Style

López-García S, Ruibal-Lista B, González-Palomares A, Diez-Fernández P. Effect of a Short-Term Training Program on Knowledge of Rip Currents: A Study with University Students. Safety. 2025; 11(3):92. https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11030092

Chicago/Turabian Style

López-García, Sergio, Brais Ruibal-Lista, Alba González-Palomares, and Pelayo Diez-Fernández. 2025. "Effect of a Short-Term Training Program on Knowledge of Rip Currents: A Study with University Students" Safety 11, no. 3: 92. https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11030092

APA Style

López-García, S., Ruibal-Lista, B., González-Palomares, A., & Diez-Fernández, P. (2025). Effect of a Short-Term Training Program on Knowledge of Rip Currents: A Study with University Students. Safety, 11(3), 92. https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11030092

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