Procedure for Assessing the Suitability of Battery Second Life Applications after EV First Life
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Framework for the Battery Assessment after First Life
- Battery state evaluation: The degradation conditions of the battery (energy, power, external wear) are analyzed.
- Technical viability of different solutions: Requirements for different applications and possible configurations of the EV batteries are analyzed.
- Economic evaluation: The economic viability of the possible solutions is analyzed.
- Recycle/disposal: If the battery is not repairable, it can be recycled or disposed of. If the technology is not available, there is not sufficient recycling capacity or there is no obligation to recycle the battery, and a second life is not possible, disposal immediately after the first life is a potential option.
- Repair/reuse: Depending on the battery architecture and financial considerations, the battery pack or individual modules can be repaired and continue first life in the same vehicle or in another.
- Study second life: If the battery is still in good condition or can be repaired but does not have enough remaining life to meet its first life requirements, the battery assessment can be performed to explore potential options for second life applications.
3. Evaluation of the State of the Battery
- 1.
- Continual estimation of battery health:Either on-board or through the cloud, relevant health indicators can be calculated throughout the first life of the battery. These can be direct measurements of important factors including the distance driven, age of the battery, ambient temperature, depth of discharge, battery charging and discharging rate, or more sophisticated calculations such as the State of Health (SOH).The accuracy of the SOH is dependent on the algorithm or process implemented. A variety of different solutions have been developed to estimate SOH [17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25], so specific techniques will not be addressed in this paper. However, generally, the use of data to develop the SOH estimation could be based only on a subset of data (periodic health estimates) or even recording of the full life of the battery in the cloud, as some manufacturers are starting to do [26,27]. Additionally, the SOH can be based on data from an individual vehicle or multiple vehicles. In the case that these data are shared, it could make second life rollout and also vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology more effective [18,28].
- 2.
- Testing of the battery pack: Obtaining indicators of the battery health after the first EOL is currently the most common technique for advising second life decisions. The typical tests performed are capacity and internal resistance. These tests may last 2 days and can be carried out at the pack level, module level or cell level [29]. There are standards that can be followed during the test process, for example, UL 1974 [7]. There is also the chance that the testing of the battery is performed periodically during the first life of the battery as part of the maintenance of the vehicle, which might make the data available for consideration during second life. Also, some strategies to estimate the remaining useful life (RUL) can be use with the data obtained by the tests [30].
- Vehicle reaches EOL: In this case, the vehicle is reaching its EOL while the battery is still functional. For example, the vehicle is retired or damaged either with or without damage to the battery. Depending on the condition and health of the battery, the battery can be used directly as a pack or disassembled into modules or cells along with the accompanying balance of plant to proceed to the next step in its lifecycle, as depicted in Figure 1.
- Battery reaches EOL: There are a broad set of reasons that a battery can reach EOL—most notably, the battery can no longer meet the needs of the driver. This could be because the driver’s needs have changed, or because the battery has degraded rendering it unable to achieve the same level of performance as it once could. This scenario is the most common when the battery cannot fulfill the requirements of the driver in terms of range or power due to a decrease of the energy capacity or an increase of the internal resistance, respectively. Additionally, there could be a failure in the battery pack that prevents its use, while the rest of the vehicle systems are still functional.
- Warranty or legal limitation: There can also be reasons outside of the owner’s control that affect the ability to operate the vehicle. For instance, there can be stipulations in the warranty that require certain actions for the vehicle or the battery pack at a specific age or mileage. Lastly, there could be laws passed in a given country or region that limit usage of vehicles that achieve certain milestones (e.g., age, or mileage). This has been done in many cities in the European Union to limit emissions, by encouraging vehicle stock turnover and movement to more efficient and less polluting vehicles.
4. Technical Viability of Different Solutions
4.1. Second Life Applications: Requirements
- Capacity: The maximum energy storage capacity to be installed in each application is limited by several factors such as maximum initial investment, energy demand or desired power. Some applications have to follow regulations or consumer requirements to choose the most suitable capacity. The future income of the installation is dependent on the installed capacity, so an economic study is needed to optimize the sizing. If future degradation is taken into consideration during the optimization, it can affect the sizing of the system as well as its economic feasibility. In Figure 2, the identified second life applications are classified in terms of capacity and are matched with the end user of the installation.
- Max power: This depends on the maximum C-rate that the battery can deliver. For Li-ion batteries, it typically varies from 0.5C (Energy Cells) to 5C (Power Cells). Moreover, higher C-rates (25C) can be delivered in small pulses (a few seconds) [46]. Despite that, battery energy storage systems (BESS) oftentimes offer max C-rates of 1C [47,48,49]. Because of the battery design, the power requirement is often interrelated with choosing the most suitable capacity.
- Weight: To obtain the same capacity with second life cells (80% SoH) as with first life cells, 25% more cells are needed and therefore, 25% more net weight of cells will be installed. In stationary applications this does not influence the performance. However, in mobile applications, the weight affects the power and the range of the vehicle. Despite this, in small mobility applications the performance reduction does not appear to be significant. For example, the difference in performance between a scooter with first life batteries (2 kg [45]) and one with second-life batteries (2.5 kg) is equivalent to the difference between the performance of a scooter driven by a 75 kg person and another driven by a 75.5 kg person, that is negligible for the final customer.
- Volume limitations: In mobility applications and small electronic devices, volume is always a limiting factor. For example, the design of the vehicle or the device is greatly affected by the volume and shape of the battery, and therefore it affects the final quality of the product. In contrast, for stationary applications the volume occupied by the battery has a much less significant effect on the capacity installed. However, there are some exceptions such as industries, buildings, or individual houses where the space available may not be enough to install the desired capacity.
- Energy Management system (EMS): The EMS is in charge of controlling the flow of energy in the installation between the different components. The complexity depends on the optimization algorithms included. For example, algorithms to improve the life of the elements of the system, or algorithms to optimize the revenue of the system. It is worthwhile to highlight that the EMS is different from the Battery Management System (BMS), which has the unique objective of ensuring that the battery functions safely. Depending on the new second life application, a new EMS has to be implemented. The communication between the BMS of the old battery or the power converter should be addressed, and may be an impediment as discussed in Section 4.2.
- Thermal management: There are different ways of managing the temperature of the batteries. There are passive techniques and active techniques. The most common active techniques to maintain temperatures in the optimal range are forced air and liquid refrigeration. Depending on the ambient temperature and the working conditions, an appropriate thermal system should be chosen and the degradation of the batteries will be reduced. The decision to include thermal management in the possible second life application should consider the economics of the alternatives (e.g., the ability to reuse a pack or module thermal system, the cost of purchasing a new system, and the performance reduction from not including a thermal management system).
- Possible configurations: Depending on the design of the EV battery pack, it could be adapted to second life applications through different configurations. The main configurations identified in this document are: stacking battery packs, refurbishing used modules and refurbishing used cells. In Figure 2, second life applications are matched with different possible configurations vs capacity. For stationary applications, the three configurations are possible. For low-capacity applications, due to the form factor and capacity requirements, the only practical configuration is to use refurbished cells. This will be explained in detail in the next subsection.
4.2. Second Life Applications: Potential Configurations
4.2.1. Stacking Used EV Battery Packs
4.2.2. Refurbished Battery Made from Used Modules
4.2.3. Refurbished Modules Made from Used Cells
5. Economic Evaluation of Each Potential Solution
5.1. Cost of Each Potential Solution
5.2. Revenues
- The objective-based approach [72,73]: the cost of battery degradation is included as an economic cost in the objective function. The degradation can be expressed using the Ah throughput method [73,74] that assumes that the battery can deliver a certain amount of energy before its end of life without considering the working conditions. Another way of expressing the degradation of the battery is using the number of cycles vs DOD power functions [69,72], where it is assumed that the number of cycles that a battery can perform is inversely proportional to the amplitude of DOD given by a simple power function [71].
6. Example Battery Assessment
6.1. Evaluate State of the Battery
6.2. Technical Viability
- Stacking battery packs: This configuration is viable and can be implemented easily using power converters. In this case, only one battery pack is available, so it would be a standalone battery pack application.
- Refurbished battery pack made from used modules: a new battery pack or rack of modules should be built with a BMS available to communicate with the module control units (MCU) of the modules. It is unable to work alone.
- Refurbished modules made from used cells: the battery pack can be dismantled to the cell level so it is possible to refurbish a new pack/module using the used cells. The inconvenience is that in order to use the cells with a new BMS, they should be characterized and a minimum of cells should be wasted in some previous tests.
6.3. Economic Analysis
6.4. Decision
- The scrap value (i.e., the price that must be paid to the old owner) of the battery pack has to be subtracted from the mentioned revenues.
- The operation predicts a relatively short lifetime (i.e., two years), after which a new battery would need to be acquired to continue operation.
- Real costs of the required power converter and other equipment should be used, as opposed to the general cost items identified from the literature.
- A deeper analysis of the revenues and optimization of the battery use could be done, to consider the potential for stacked values and the opportunity for enhancing operation decisions by internalizing degradation into the optimization. The assumption that the battery will have a linear degradation until 50% SOH is unlikely if the battery reaches a point of rapid increase in degradation before the 50% SOH level (i.e., the ageing knee).
7. Conclusions and Future Work
- This work develops a framework for assessing the suitability of battery second life applications that can be used today, and which has the ability to evolve with changes in the future. Some of the changes envisioned are related to an increase in the volume of recorded data points, advancements in battery modeling and digital twins, as well as improvements to the optimization algorithms in energy management systems to internalize degradation in their objective functions.
- Building on the previous literature, the paper discusses the reasons for transitioning to EOL, the decisions that must be made, and identifies a quantifiable process for determining the most suitable use for batteries as they reach EOL (including repair, reuse, recycle, or disposal).
- This paper explores options for battery configurations (direct use of pack, stack of packs, direct use of modules, refurbish with modules, and refurbish with cells). Uniquely, by comparing those configurations to the technical requirements for second life applications, a reader can rapidly understand the tradeoffs and gain practical knowledge on how best to implement second life batteries for their specific application. This discussion includes a table of advantages and disadvantages to guide the decision process.
- This work develops a method for evaluating the economic impacts of reusing second life batteries compared to purchasing a new battery pack. There are provided default values for costs and revenues. However, with limited data available, it is acknowledged that there is high variability in these data. It is therefore recommended that additional studies need to be performed that capture the cost of transitioning batteries into second life applications.
- Minimizing the costs, accurately predicting battery health and remaining lifetime, and proper sizing for the application are the keys to maximizing the profit from second life batteries.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
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Second Life Application Configurations | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Stacking battery packs |
|
|
Refurbished battery made from used modules |
|
|
Refurbished modules made from used cells |
|
|
Cost of Dismantling | Battery Pack | Module | Cell |
---|---|---|---|
Battery removal from EV | 117 € | 117 € | 117 € |
Disassembly to modules | ― | 500 € | 500 € |
Disassembly to cells | ― | ― | 275 € |
TOTAL | 117 € | 617 € | 892 € |
COST/kWh | 6.68 € | 35.26 € | 50.97 € |
Concept | Description | Cost |
---|---|---|
Storage Block | Includes the battery module, rack, and battery management system. | 185–450 €/kWh [62,63,64] |
Storage-Balance of System | Container, cabling, switchgear, flow battery pumps, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC). | 25–45 €/kW [62,63,64] |
Power Equipment/Power Control system | Includes bidirectional invertor, DC-DC converter, isolation protection, alternating current (AC) breakers, relays, communication interface, and software. | 66–150 €/kW [62,63,64] |
Controls & Communication | Includes the energy management system for the entire ESS and is responsible for the ESS operation. | 13–40 €/kWh [62,63,64] |
System Integration | Price charged by the system integrator to integrate sub-components of a BESS into a single functional system. Tasks include procurement and shipment to the site of battery modules, racks with cables in place, containers, and power equipment. At the site, the modules and racks are containerized with HVAC and fire suppression installed and integrated with the power equipment to provide a turnkey system. | 33–46 €/kWh [62,63] |
Engineering, Procurement, and Construction (EPC) | Includes non-recurring engineering costs and construction equipment as well as shipping, siting and installation, and commissioning of the ESS. | 45–58 €/kWh [62,63] |
Project Development | Costs are associated with permitting, power purchase agreements, interconnection agreements, site control, and financing. | 54–67 €/kWh [62,63] |
Grid Integration | Direct cost associated with connecting the ESS to the grid, including transformer cost, metering, and isolation breakers (could be a single disconnect breaker or a breaker bay for larger systems). | 20–28 €/kW [62,63] |
Operations & Maintenance (O&M) | Includes costs to keep the storage system operational throughout the duration of its economic life that do not fluctuate based on energy throughput, such as planned maintenance, parts, labor and benefits for staff. | 5–20 €/kW-year [62,64] |
Decommissioning Costs | Disconnection, disassembly/removal and disposal | 200 €/kW [64] |
MIN $/(kW (Installed)-Year) | MEAN $/(kW (Installed)-Year) | MAX $/(kW (Installed)-Year) | |
---|---|---|---|
Capacity or resource adequacy | 10 | 106 | 196 |
Energy arbitrage | 1 | 52 | 163 |
Regulation | 1 | 123 | 359 |
Spin/non-spin reserve | 1 | 20 | 67 |
Frequency response | 37 | 54 | 81 |
Voltage support | 3 | 22 | 60 |
Black start service | 8 | 8 | 8 |
Transmission congestion relief | 12 | 72 | 260 |
Transmission upgrade deferral | 24 | 124 | 233 |
Distribution upgrade deferral | 9 | 93 | 177 |
Power reliability | 2 | 77 | 283 |
TOU charge reduction | 2 | 65 | 266 |
Demand charge reduction | 12 | 104 | 269 |
Feature | Value |
---|---|
SOH estimation | 75% |
IR increased | 30% |
Initial capacity | 54 kWh |
Condition of battery pack | The battery still works but does not fulfill the requirements of the driver. |
Condition of Modules/cells | There is not a significant difference between the performance of modules. |
Battery lifetime model is available? | No |
Age of the battery | 8 years |
Total vehicle mileage | 300,000 km |
Maximum vehicle range | 400 km |
Feature | Value |
---|---|
Number of battery packs | 1 |
Number of modules | 8 series |
Number of cells | 12 series |
Cell format | Prismatic |
Available Energy | 0.75 × 54 kWh = 40.5 kWh |
Max Power | 25 kW |
Weight | 300 kg |
Volume | Unknown |
Thermal management | The thermal management system can be reused with an external pump |
Safety of disassembling modules and cells | Modules and cells can be disassembled without damaging them |
Battery pack: Possibility to stack or connect to battery converter | The battery packs are not designed to be connected. The BMS is available, and a gateway can be developed to use the battery with a power converter |
Modules: Possibility to stack, work alone Communications, safety | The external case of the module does not meet the safety requirements (e.g., penetration, insolation) to function outside the battery pack. It needs a superior BMS to work |
Cells: Possibility of building a new module | The cells should be characterized if a new BMS is planned to be used |
Configuration: | Use the whole pack battery pack |
Power: | 25 kW |
Energy: | 40 kWh |
Possible applications: | Support EV charge, time shifting, renewables integration, peak shaving, capacity reserve |
Unit Cost | Units | Amortization | Total Cost/Year | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Removal from EV | 6.68 €/kWh (Table 2) | 40 kWh | 2 years | 133.6 € |
Power equipment | 66 €/kW (Table 3) | 20 kW | 10 years | 132 € |
Controls & communication | 13 €/kWh (Table 3) | 40 kWh | 10 years | 52 € |
System Integration | 33 €/kWh (Table 3) | 40 kWh | 10 years | 132 € |
Engineering, Procurement, and Construction (EPC) | 45 €/kWh (Table 3) | 40 kWh | 10 years | 180 € |
TOTAL COST/year | 629.6 € |
Concept | Value |
---|---|
Costs | 629.6 €/year |
Revenues | 1000 €/year |
Benefits | 370.4 €/year |
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Montes, T.; Etxandi-Santolaya, M.; Eichman, J.; Ferreira, V.J.; Trilla, L.; Corchero, C. Procedure for Assessing the Suitability of Battery Second Life Applications after EV First Life. Batteries 2022, 8, 122. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8090122
Montes T, Etxandi-Santolaya M, Eichman J, Ferreira VJ, Trilla L, Corchero C. Procedure for Assessing the Suitability of Battery Second Life Applications after EV First Life. Batteries. 2022; 8(9):122. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8090122
Chicago/Turabian StyleMontes, Tomás, Maite Etxandi-Santolaya, Josh Eichman, Victor José Ferreira, Lluís Trilla, and Cristina Corchero. 2022. "Procedure for Assessing the Suitability of Battery Second Life Applications after EV First Life" Batteries 8, no. 9: 122. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8090122
APA StyleMontes, T., Etxandi-Santolaya, M., Eichman, J., Ferreira, V. J., Trilla, L., & Corchero, C. (2022). Procedure for Assessing the Suitability of Battery Second Life Applications after EV First Life. Batteries, 8(9), 122. https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8090122