Effects of Root and Foliar Application of Corn Steep Liquor on Pepper Plants: A Physiological, Nutritional, and Morphological Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Plant Material and Growth Condicitons
2.2. Experimental Design
2.3. Measurements of Gas Exchange and Chlorophylls Fluorescence
2.3.1. Photosynthetic Efficiency
2.3.2. Fluorescence of Chlorophyll a
2.4. Analysis of Plant Samples
2.4.1. Concentrations of Oxidative Indicators (MDA, H2O2, and O2−)
2.4.2. Hormonal Profile
2.4.3. Aminogram
2.4.4. Enzymatic Activities Involved in Nitrogen Metabolism
2.4.5. Concentrations of Total Nutrients and Nitrate and Nitrogen Use Efficiency
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Biomass and Leaf Area
3.2. Gas Exchange Parameters
3.3. Chl a Fluoresence
3.4. Study of Oxidative Stress
3.5. Hormonal Profile
3.6. Enzymatic Activities Associated with Nitrogen Metabolism (Nitrate Reductase, NR, and Glutamine Synthetase, GS)
3.7. Aminogram
- Root application of CSL-B produced the highest values of proline, serine, and threonine;
- Root application of CSL-H gave the highest concentrations of asparagine, aspartate, isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, proline, valine, and cysteine;
- Foliar application of CSL-B produced the highest values of asparagine, phenylalanine, and tryptophan;
- The foliar CSL-H treatment produced the highest values of alanine, glycine, histidine, lysine, phenylalanine, serine, and tryptophan.
3.8. Concentrations of Nutrients
4. Discussion
- An increase in the hormones AIA, tZ, GA1, GA3, and GA4 (Table 5).
- An increase in the foliar concentrations of P, K, Ca, Mg, and S of 19, 19, 16, 41, and 15%, respectively, without reaching values toxic for plants (Table 7).
- Changes in the aminogram, with increases in the concentrations of alanine, proline, and tryptophan of more than 30%, and a decrease of more than 30% for tyrosine and methionine, for the 4 CSL treatments. There were also differences among the treatments, with the concentrations of 7, 10, 4, and 9 amino acids increasing by more than 30% for the treatments CSL-B Root, CSL-H Root, CSL-B Foliar, and CSL-H Foliar, respectively (Table 6).
- Increased NR and glutamine synthetase activity in the CSL-B Root treatment.
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Treatment | Biomass of the Aerial Part (Dry Weight) (g Plant−¹) | Leaf Area (dm2) | Specific Leaf Area (dm² g−¹) |
---|---|---|---|
Control | 4.1 ± 0.7 c | 10.4 ± 0.1 d | 0.23 ± 0.01 a |
CSL-B Root | 6.7 ± 0.7 a | 12.6 ± 0.3 a | 0.12 ± 0.01 c |
CSL-B Foliar | 5.1 ± 0.3 b | 11.0 ± 0.1 c | 0.22 ± 0.01 a |
CSL-H Root | 6.4 ± 0.9 a | 12.1 ± 0.2 b | 0.13 ± 0.01 c |
CSL-H Foliar | 5.3 ± 0.7 b | 11.4 ± 0.2 c | 0.16 ± 0.01 b |
p-value | *** | *** | *** |
Treatment | A (mmol m−2 s−1) | E (mmol m−2 s−1) | gs (mmol m−2 s−1) | WUE (μmol mmol−1) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Control | 3.8 ± 0.3 c | 0.28 ± 0.03 ab | 24 ± 3 ab | 13.5 ± 0.3 d |
CSL-B Root | 6.6 ± 0.9 a | 0.29 ± 0.05 ab | 24 ± 5 ab | 22.6 ± 0.8 a |
CSL-B Foliar | 5.1 ± 0.4 b | 0.25 ± 0.05 b | 21 ± 6 b | 20.5 ± 1.6 b |
CSL-H Root | 5.9 ± 0.7 ab | 0.35 ± 0.02 a | 29 ± 2 a | 16.8 ± 1.3 c |
CSL-H Foliar | 5.1 ± 0.6 b | 0.29 ± 0.03 ab | 32 ± 4 ab | 17.7 ± 0.8 c |
p-value | ** | * | * | *** |
Treatment | Fv/Fm | RC/ABS | PIABS | 1–Vj |
---|---|---|---|---|
Control | 0.809 ± 0.009 | 0.74 ± 0.05 b | 4.7 ± 0.8 b | 0.70 ± 0.02 |
CSL-B Root | 0.820 ± 0.005 | 0.85 ± 0.04 a | 8.5 ± 1.3 a | 0.69 ± 0.02 |
CSL-B Foliar | 0.811 ± 0.003 | 0.77 ± 0.07 ab | 6.0 ± 1.0 b | 0.66 ± 0.02 |
CSL-H Root | 0.814 ± 0.003 | 0.83 ± 0.06 a | 8.2 ± 1.3 a | 0.69 ± 0.02 |
CSL-H Foliar | 0.816 ± 0.004 | 0.81 ± 0.05 ab | 7.7 ± 1.1 a | 0.67 ± 0.03 |
p-value | NS | * | ** | NS |
Treatment | MDA (µmol g−¹ FW) | Concentration of O2− (µg g−¹ FW) | Concentration of H2O2 (µg g−¹ FW) |
---|---|---|---|
Control | 3.2 ± 0.2 | 5.5 ± 0.6 | 124 ± 9 |
CSL-B Root | 3.4 ± 0.4 | 5.2 ± 0.6 | 117 ± 9 |
CSL-B Foliar | 3.4 ± 0.6 | 5.4 ± 0.3 | 114 ± 13 |
CSL-H Root | 3.1 ± 0.1 | 5.9 ± 0.9 | 117 ± 6 |
CSL-H Foliar | 3.6 ± 0.5 | 5.4 ± 0.2 | 121 ± 15 |
p-value | NS | NS | NS |
Control | CSL-B Root | CSL-B Foliar | CSL-H Root | CSL-H Foliar | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AIA | 1.5 ± 0.1 c | 2.2 ± 0.4 a | 1.8 ± 0.2 b | 2.0 ± 0.2 a | 1.9 ± 0.3 b | *** |
tZ | 480 ± 10 d | 820 ± 20 a | 710 ± 20 b | 820 ± 20 a | 680 ± 20 c | *** |
iP | 0.58 ± 0.03 | 0.62 ± 0.03 | 0.61 ± 0.02 | 0.62 ± 0.05 | 0.61 ± 0.07 | NS |
GA1 | 0.31 ± 0.03 c | 0.52 ± 0.03 a | 0.40 ± 0.02 b | 0.50 ± 0.02 a | 0.41 ± 0.02 b | *** |
GA3 | 0.13 ± 0.03 d | 0.21 ± 0.03 bc | 0.18 ± 0.02 c | 0.23 ± 0.03 a | 0.18 ± 0.02 c | *** |
GA4 | 0.22 ± 0.01 c | 0.46 ± 0.06 a | 0.30 ± 0.02 b | 0.41 ± 0.03 a | 0.32 ± 0.01 b | *** |
ABA | 57 ± 3 | 60 ± 2 | 62 ± 2 | 60 ± 2 | 59 ± 2 | NS |
ACC | 14.5 ± 0.2 | 14.7 ± 0.1 | 15.2 ± 0.2 | 14.9 ± 0.6 | 15.3 ± 0.6 | NS |
JA | 410 ± 6 | 403 ± 6 | 400 ± 4 | 393 ± 4 | 409 ± 6 | NS |
SA | 3300 ± 300 | 3300 ± 200 | 3300 ± 200 | 3400 ± 300 | 3300 ± 200 | NS |
Control | CSL-B Root | CSL-H Root | CSL-B Foliar | CSL-H Foliar | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alanine | 20 ± 1 d | 47 ± 2 b | 51 ± 3 b | 31 ± 2 c | 71 ± 4 a | *** |
Arginine | 3.2 ± 0.2 b | 2.7 ± 0.1 c | 4.7 ± 0.2 a | 1.3 ± 0.1 d | 1.3 ± 0.1 d | *** |
Asparagine | 4.7 ± 0.2 b | Nd | Nd | 6.3 ± 0.3 a | Nd | *** |
Aspartate | 53 ± 3 b | 56 ± 3 b | 61 ± 3 a | 31 ± 2 c | 57 ± 3 ab | *** |
Glutamate | 236 ± 12 b | 275 ± 13 a | 238 ± 12 b | 69 ± 3 d | 186 ± 9 c | *** |
Glycine | Nd | Nd | 42 ± 2 b | Nd | 58 ± 3 a | *** |
Histidine | 3.2 ± 0.2 c | 4.2 ± 0.2 b | 3.5 ± 0.2 c | 2.0 ± 0.1 d | 5.9 ± 0.2 a | *** |
Isoleucine | 560 ± 30 d | 630 ± 30 c | 810 ± 40 a | 720 ± 40 b | 670 ± 30 bc | *** |
Leucine | 820 ± 40 d | 920 ± 50 c | 1180 ± 60 a | 1060 ± 50 b | 970 ± 50 bc | *** |
Lysine | 1.41 ± 0.07 b | 0.84 ± 0.04 d | 0.59 ± 0.03 e | 1.03 ± 0.05 c | 2.0 ± 0.1 a | *** |
Phenylalanine | 179 ± 9 b | 187 ± 9 b | 220 ± 10 a | 220 ± 10 a | 220 ± 10 a | *** |
Proline | 80 ± 4 d | 210 ± 10 a | 210 ± 10 a | 190 ± 10 b | 170 ± 9 c | *** |
Serine | 14.8 ± 0.7 c | 23 ± 1 a | 17.4 ± 0.9 b | 12.4 ± 0.6 d | 24 ± 1 a | *** |
Threonine | 7.4 ± 0.4 c | 11.9 ± 0.6 a | 10.0 ± 0.5 b | 4.7 ± 0.2 d | 10.1 ± 0.5 b | *** |
Tryptophan | 244 ± 12 c | 336 ± 17 b | 327 ± 16 b | 510 ± 30 a | 520 ± 30 a | *** |
Tyrosine | 331 ± 17 a | 148 ± 7 c | 176 ± 9 b | 134 ± 7 c | 184 ± 9 b | *** |
Valine | 111 ± 6 e | 155 ± 5 c | 200 ± 10 a | 136 ± 7 d | 176 ± 9 b | *** |
Methionine | 25 ± 1 a | 18 ± 1 b | 12 ± 1 c | 9 ± 1 d | 18 ± 1 b | *** |
Cysteine | 1.16 ± 0.06 b | 1.03 ± 0.05 c | 1.53 ± 0.08 a | Nd | Nd | *** |
4–OH Proline | 6.1 ± 0.3 c | 9.7 ± 0.5 a | 8.7 ± 0.4 b | 4.7 ± 0.2 d | 8.4 ± 0.4 b | *** |
Total | 270 ± 100 d | 3000 ± 200 c | 3600 ± 200 a | 3200 ± 200 bc | 3400 ± 200 ab | *** |
Treatment | P | K | Ca | Mg | S | N | NO3− |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control | 4.6 ± 0.2 d | 41 ± 2 c | 17.5 ± 0.7 c | 4.5 ± 0.2 c | 4.01 ± 0.2 e | 65 ± 2 b | 14.2 ± 0.3 b |
CSL-B Root | 5.3 ± 0.2 bc | 47 ± 2 b | 19.2 ± 0.8 b | 6.7 ± 0.3 a | 5.2 ± 0.2 a | 65 ± 2 c | 12.8 ± 0.6 c |
CSL-H Root | 5.1 ± 0.2 c | 50 ± 2 a | 19.3 ± 0.8 b | 5.7 ± 0.2 b | 4.5 ± 0.2 b | 63 ± 2 a | 16 ± 1 a |
CSL-B Foliar | 5.6 ± 0.2 b | 46 ± 2 b | 21.3 ± 0.9 a | 6.3 ± 0.3 a | 4.2 ± 0.2 d | 63 ± 2 c | 12.9 ± 0.7 c |
CSL-H Foliar | 6.0 ± 0.2 a | 51 ± 2 a | 21.2 ± 0.9 a | 6.7 ± 0.3 a | 4.8 ± 0.2 c | 64 ± 2 b | 14.9 ± 0.3 b |
p-value | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** |
Fe | Cu | Mn | Zn | Mo | B | ||
Control | 88 ± 4 d | 59 ± 2 | 106 ± 4 | 55 ± 2 c | 0.58 ± 0.02 c | 12.4 ± 0.4 | |
CSL-B Root | 106 ± 4 a | 55 ± 1 | 108 ± 4 | 73 ± 3 a | 1.12 ± 0.04 a | 11.1 ± 0.5 | |
CSL-H Root | 95 ± 4 bc | 59 ± 2 | 103 ± 4 | 64 ± 3 b | 0.91 ± 0.04 b | 14.0 ± 0.6 | |
CSL-B Foliar | 90 ± 4 cd | 58 ± 2 | 112 ± 4 | 63 ± 3 b | 0.89 ± 0.04 b | 12.6 ± 0.5 | |
CSL-H Foliar | 100 ± 4 ab | 57 ± 2 | 111 ± 4 | 73 ± 3 a | 0.66 ± 0.03 c | 13.1 ± 0.5 | |
p-value | ** | NS | NS | *** | *** | NS |
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Navarro-Morillo, I.; Navarro-Perez, V.; Perez-Millan, R.; Navarro-León, E.; Blasco, B.; Cámara-Zapata, J.M.; Garcia-Sanchez, F. Effects of Root and Foliar Application of Corn Steep Liquor on Pepper Plants: A Physiological, Nutritional, and Morphological Study. Horticulturae 2023, 9, 221. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9020221
Navarro-Morillo I, Navarro-Perez V, Perez-Millan R, Navarro-León E, Blasco B, Cámara-Zapata JM, Garcia-Sanchez F. Effects of Root and Foliar Application of Corn Steep Liquor on Pepper Plants: A Physiological, Nutritional, and Morphological Study. Horticulturae. 2023; 9(2):221. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9020221
Chicago/Turabian StyleNavarro-Morillo, Iván, Valeria Navarro-Perez, Rafael Perez-Millan, Eloy Navarro-León, Begoña Blasco, Jose Maria Cámara-Zapata, and Francisco Garcia-Sanchez. 2023. "Effects of Root and Foliar Application of Corn Steep Liquor on Pepper Plants: A Physiological, Nutritional, and Morphological Study" Horticulturae 9, no. 2: 221. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9020221