Research and Innovations in Latin American Vitiviniculture: A Review

Abstract

Latin America offers a unique point of view into the adaptation of viticulture to climate change through its rich diversity of climates, traditional knowledge, and scientific innovation. This review synthesizes the current research and technological developments across major wine-producing countries including Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti. Argentina shows key adaptation strategies, including high-altitude vineyard relocation, clonal and rootstock selection, canopy and water management, and the conservation of Criolla and other autochthonous grapevine varieties. In Brazil, tropical viticulture and breeding programs led by Embrapa exemplify advancements in disease-resistant and climate-resilient cultivars. Chile’s heroic and southern viticulture highlights the importance of old vines, microclimatic heterogeneity, and territorial identity. Uruguay stands out for its terroir-based research and producer-led adaptation strategies. This review also addresses systemic challenges in scientific publishing, particularly the underrepresentation of Latin American researchers in global vitivinicultural discourse. These disparities underscore the need for inclusive science that values local knowledge and promotes equity in research funding and dissemination. Overall, Latin America stands out not only as a region highly vulnerable to climate change, but as an emerging model of adaptation and innovation, demonstrating how resilient, sustainable, and culturally rooted wine production can thrive under shifting environmental conditions.

1. Introduction

Historical instances of discrimination and marginalization against Latin American individuals, including scientists, are deeply rooted in colonial legacies and systemic biases that persist across various domains [1,2]. Albert Einstein, renowned for his contributions to physics, documented his travels in personal diaries [3]. During his 1925 visit to South America, Einstein’s writings revealed prejudiced views towards the local population [3]. He expressed reluctance about his trip to Brazil and, in his diaries, referred to a Brazilian scientist using a derogatory term, highlighting his biased perceptions of Latin Americans [3].

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, European exhibitions, known as “human zoos”, displayed Indigenous peoples from various regions, including Latin America, in dehumanizing conditions [4,5]. These exhibitions represented the Indigenous cultures as “primitive”, reinforcing colonialist and racist ideologies. Notably, in 1881, a group of eleven Kawesqar individuals from Chile were taken to Europe and exhibited in cities like Paris, Berlin, and Zurich [6]. These historical events exemplify the systemic discrimination faced by Latin American and Indigenous individuals, including scientists, in the global arena. Such prejudices have contributed to the underrepresentation and marginalization of Latin American researchers in scientific communities.

The scientific literature indicates that Latin American researchers face significant challenges related to discrimination and underrepresentation in the global scientific community [7]. Hispanic women remain significantly underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics fields, facing persistent barriers that limit their participation and advancement [1,8]. Research indicates that, across various disciplines, their representation is substantially lower compared to their White counterparts, reflecting deep-rooted systemic challenges [8].

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) emphasize the need for equity and inclusion across all sectors, including science and academia, to eradicate poverty and inequality while fostering economic growth and environmental sustainability. However, structural biases continue to hinder the fair representation of non-white scientists, as reflected in scientific publishing. Flanagin et al. [9] highlighted the ongoing controversies regarding racial and ethnic disparities in medical and scientific journals, where systemic barriers often marginalize scholars from underrepresented backgrounds.

Liu et al. [10] analyzed one million scientific papers from six major publishers over the past two decades, revealing a significant underrepresentation of non-white editors relative to their proportion of authorship. Their findings also indicate that non-white scientists face longer manuscript processing times, lower acceptance rates, and fewer citations, underscoring the challenges these researchers encounter in academic publishing. This pattern extends to vine and wine sciences, where editorial boards lack diversity, particularly in Latin American representation.

An analysis of editorial boards in vitiviniculture-related journals [11] has revealed that journals from France, United States, Australia, South Africa, Germany, and Canada exhibited the lowest levels of Latin American editorial representation (0.0 to 10.0%), reinforcing disparities in scientific publishing. By contrast, the Revista Iberoamericana de Viticultura, Agroindustria y Ruralidad (RIVAR), from Universidad de Santiago de Chile, demonstrated the highest diversity, with 53.8% of its editors from Latin America and 46.2% from other regions, alongside an equal gender distribution. Despite being relatively new, RIVAR has already achieved a Q1 ranking in Cultural Sciences and History and Q3 in Agronomy, Crop Science, and Horticulture, demonstrating the impact of its inclusive editorial policies.

Notably, OENO One and the Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Science, which hold the highest impact factors in vine and wine research, include only one Latin American editor each, both male [11]. These journals primarily focus on Food Science and Horticulture, favoring highly technical research and limiting opportunities for scholars from developing countries who prioritize heritage, society, and historical perspectives. Kreimer and Vessuri [12] concluded that Latin American scholars hold a unique position to critically analyze the intersection of science and society, offering insights that challenge technocratic paradigms while advocating for fairer, more inclusive scientific frameworks. However, this space remains under construction, requiring continued efforts to dismantle systemic barriers and ensure equitable access to scientific discourse for Latin American researchers.

The historical and systemic discrimination faced by Latin American researchers continues to shape their underrepresentation in global scientific discourse, particularly in vitiviniculture [11]. The biases embedded in academic publishing, editorial board composition, and research funding allocation contribute to the marginalization of Latin American scholars, limiting their participation in decision-making and innovation. Despite these challenges, Latin America has emerged as a crucial hub for viticultural research, integrating ancestral knowledge, agroecological practices, and climate change adaptation strategies [11]. The scientific advancements in vine and wine sciences from this region not only enhance sustainability and biodiversity conservation but challenge the Eurocentric dominance in viticultural paradigms [11,13].

This review aims to highlight the scientific contributions and innovations in Latin American vitiviniculture, demonstrating the necessity of diverse perspectives in shaping the future of global wine production.

2. Sustainable Practices and Climate Adaptation in Latin American Viticulture: A Context

Latin American viticulture presents unique and sustainable practices that contribute to environmental conservation and climate resilience. In Bolivia, vineyards in Cotagaita and Cintis valleys incorporate agroforestry systems, using molle trees (Schinus molle L.) and chañar (Geoffroea decorticans) as living trellises to support grapevines [14]. The majority of grape varieties trellised with trees are autochthonous, such as Negra Criolla and Vicchoqueña, and are used to protect against climate hazards and flooding, disease control, maintenance of soil fertility, and higher yields. This traditional yet innovative approach, which aligns with ongoing European research, could be a promising option for the agroecological transition of viticulture in farm scales [14,15]. A similar system is practiced in Codpa Valley and Pica Oasis, in northern Chile, where Aymara communities cultivate vines using ancestral and Criolla knowledge [11]. At the latest 45° Congress of the International Organization of Vine and Wine placed in Dijon, France, the presentation “Vitiforestry as Innovative Heritage: Adaptive Conservation of Historical Wine-Growing Landscapes as a Response to the 21st Century’s Challenges” [16] failed to acknowledge any of these contributions. In this fashion, Bolivian viticulture publications in international journals have largely relied on foreign institutions, including Georgetown University, Institut Agro Montpellier, and INRAE (National Research Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment, France), highlighting the need for greater acknowledgement and regional investment in scientific innovation.

Contrary to the dominant trend of producing wine from internationally renowned grape varieties, strongly associated with the French paradigm, such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Syrah, Sauvignon Blanc, and Chardonnay, there is a growing movement towards the revalorization and conservation of minority and autochthonous grapevine varieties worldwide, particularly in Latin America [11]. Currently, Latin America industry has led efforts to preserve and revalorize these grapevine varieties that are mostly produced by family farming [17]. Research institutions, such as INIA (National Research Institute for Agriculture) in Chile and INTA (National Institute of Agricultural Technology) in Argentina, have undertaken studies on local genotypes to develop drought-resistant varieties adapted to climate change [18,19,20,21]. Meanwhile, Embrapa (Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation) in Brazil has been pioneering a genetic improvement program for over two decades, producing disease-resistant table grapes and interspecific hybrids suited to subtropical conditions [22,23,24]. These research efforts aim to develop grapevine varieties better adapted to global warming while preserving local genetic resources and viticultural heritage, offering sustainable alternatives to the standardized global wine industry.

Several researchers have explored double cropping in grapevines as an innovative bud-forcing strategy to mitigate the negative effects of global warming in warm-climate vineyards across Europe and China [25,26,27]. This technique involves maintaining the primary crop while inducing the development of a secondary, late-ripening crop by breaking the dormancy of axillary buds within the same growing season [28]. It means two harvests per season, the first in the current date and the second one, two or three months later. In subtropical and tropical regions, double or even triple cropping has long been an established practice in table grape production, allowing for extended harvesting periods and improved productivity [29,30]. Notably, Brazilian researchers were pioneers in documenting double cropping, with the first published study on the subject appearing in 1981 [31]. Their experiments, conducted in São Miguel Arcanjo County, São Paulo, investigated the effects of double cropping on Italia grapevines to delay their vegetative cycle. The results showed that this strategy extended the ripening period by 44 days, optimizing harvest timing. However, while shoot removal at 20 cm had no significant impact on yield, pruning at 50 cm and 100 cm led to a marked decrease in productivity. These findings highlight the potential of double cropping as a climate adaptation strategy, particularly in regions where rising temperatures threaten traditional grape ripening cycles.

Mexico, Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela, Paraguay, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, and Haiti have shown notable developments in viticultural production with rich historical traditions; however, the sector remains underdeveloped [32]. This is primarily due to limited government support for producers and a lack of investment in viticultural research and innovation, which hinders its full potential for expansion and improvement [32]. Based on this, Latin American vine and wine sciences have provided to the world different research opportunities for the mitigation of the negative effects of global warming in viticulture, favoring adaptability, sustainability, and social equity that the international community should consider providing programs that promote equity and access to science.

3. Research and Innovations in Latin America Vitiviniculture

3.1. Argentina

Argentina is the most important wine producer in Latin America, being the fifth-largest wine-producing country in the world [33]. In 2022, Argentine vineyards occupied 207,047 hectares [34]. For the same year, grape production was 19,368,031 kg, and wine production was 11,456,000 hl (hectoliters). In Argentina, most grapes are used for winemaking (mainly for wine production and must production), with lower volumes in the production of dry grapes (uvas pasa) and for fresh consumption. The Argentinian emblematic variety is Malbec because of its enological personality. However, grapevine genotypic diversity in Argentina, and probably also in South America, is higher than previously thought. In that sense, there is a current effort to revalue the vegetable heritage that exists within the Criolla varieties.

Due to climatic conditions and historical and cultural factors, the provinces with the most significant area under vine cultivation are in Mendoza, where for the last six decades, approximately 70% of the vineyards have been located, and in San Juan, with around 20% of the vineyards. The rest of the production is distributed among La Rioja, Río Negro, Catamarca, Salta, and Neuquén, among other regions. Despite that, Argentina has 110 geographic indications (GI) and two recognized and protected designations of origin (DOC as Luján de Cuyo and San Rafael, both in Mendoza) [34]. Based on a national law, the Vitis vinifera varieties that are recognized as suitable for the production of quality wines with GI and DOC have been determined [34]. Different research groups in Argentina have studied different adaptation strategies to face climate change, the potential ecological sustainability of new wine regions, as well as the relevance of considering autochthonous varieties as an opportunity to offer original products in a global market, and to combat global warming [35].

Adaptation to Climate Change for Argentinian Viticulture

Different strategies to adapt Argentinian viticulture for future climate trends of higher temperatures and less water for irrigation have been recently reviewed [36]. Cabré and Nuñez [37] and Cabré et al. [38] have shown the climatic projections for the near (present–2039) and far future (2075–2099), indicating an increase in average annual temperature between 1.5 and 4.0 °C, depending on the scenario, with a higher increase in the mountainous areas than in the irrigated valleys. The same works show two contrasting trends for precipitation: during summer, storms with high intensity accompanied by hail will increase; during winter, snow precipitation in the Andes mountains will decrease. Prieto et al. [36] reported the studies already tackled in this region under arid and warm conditions, as the effects of high temperature on photosynthesis acclimation [39,40], stomatal conductance and water use efficiency [41], hydraulic conductivity [42], and berry and wine phenolics [43]. Different adaptation strategies include changes in vineyard establishment, selection of plant material, and viticultural techniques [28]. From long-term strategies, such as to change plantation site, to short-term strategies, such as changing some vineyard management during the vegetative cycle, the implementation of these approaches over time depends on viticulturist adaptation capacity and vulnerability [44]. For the case of Argentina, different efforts have been made to study the impact on vineyard location, vineyard design, and canopy management practices [36].

Vineyard Location

The selection of vineyard plantation sites is crucial to ensure the necessary solar energy for optimal grape ripening [45]. In Argentina, 18 provinces produce grapes and wine [34], with a significant increase in vineyard area in recent years. Projections and modeling studies have suggested a shift of suitable viticultural areas to higher latitudes and altitudes to mitigate the negative effects of warming [37,38]. While Argentina’s main wine-producing region will face major adaptation challenges, such as severe irrigation water scarcity, other regions could benefit from new favorable conditions [37]. In this context, high-altitude regions in western Argentina have emerged as an alternative to maintain wine quality, given their lower mean temperature, greater thermal amplitude, and increased UV-B radiation [46]. In Mendoza, the vineyard area in the Uco Valley (900–1200 m a.s.l.) has increased by 117% over the last 20 years, while it has declined in the eastern (−5%) and southern (−21%) oases [34]. The expansion to higher-altitude areas continues in northwestern provinces, such as Salta, Catamarca, and Jujuy, where the country’s highest vineyards are located [46,47]. However, this adaptation strategy is feasible mainly for large producers with financial resources, as high-altitude vineyards present new challenges for vineyard management and grapevine physiology. Meanwhile, the vineyard area has also increased in non-traditional wine-growing regions, though it still represents only 1% of the total, reflecting the industry’s interest in exploring new terroirs, such as Buenos Aires, Chubut, and La Pampa, as well as reviving historical wine regions, like Entre Ríos and Córdoba. Each region must carefully assess what to plant and how, potentially diversifying the country’s wine production. An extreme case of Patagonia, cited by Alonso et al. [48], shows the relevance of wind impact on grapevine physiology, and thus final grape quality.

Plant Material Selection

Recently, Prieto et al. [35] highlighted the distinctive nature of Argentina’s grapevine heritage, noting that approximately 30% of its vineyards are still planted with local varieties. Notably, its two principal red cultivars, Malbec and Bonarda, are not among the 13 most widely cultivated grape varieties globally, underscoring the country’s unique varietal profile. Efforts to preserve minority varieties have been made in Argentina to enhance climate resilience. Studies have shown that increasing varietal diversity can mitigate the loss of viticultural areas due to climate change, which could surpass 50% if global temperatures rise by more than 2.0 °C [49]. Despite advances in rescuing minor varieties, challenges remain in utilizing Vitis vinifera’s genetic diversity, requiring conservation policies, expanded germplasm banks, and deeper knowledge of its phenological and oenological potential [35]. Past clonal selection prioritized yield and berry composition, but recent studies have emphasized resilience to warming. For instance, certain Tempranillo clones maintained a sugar–anthocyanin balance under high temperatures [50], and water use efficiency differences among clones can reach 80%, exceeding inter-varietal variation [51]. In Mendoza, Malbec clones differ in fruit set timing, ripening period length, and yield components [52]. Although 90% of Argentina’s vineyards are own-rooted, rootstocks play a crucial role in mitigating both biotic and abiotic stresses, with local research identifying genotypes that exhibit tolerance to salinity, like Torrontes Riojano and Torrontes Sanjuanino [53,54].

Autochthonous Grapevine Varieties

In the last 10 years, Argentina has contributed to the advancement of knowledge on minor cultivars as a strategic adaptation measure to address the challenges of global warming [35]. Prieto et al. [35] have shown the recent evidence brought to light for the existing diversity within the group of autochthonous cultivars from Argentina and other South American countries, commonly known as Criolla. These studies have found 70 different varieties, including 21 European, 49 Criolla, of which 34 of them were previously unknown Criolla varieties [20,55]. This diversity is conserved in ancient, isolated, small vineyards where growers have played a key role in conserving this genetic diversity [55]. A big group corresponded to the progeny originated from Listán Prieto × Moscatel de Alejandría [56], and also was evidenced by another crossing as Mollar Cano × Listan Prieto, Listán Prieto × Muscat à Petits Grains Blanc; Malbec also participated as a parent [35]. These results have shown the relevance of increasing the diversity of genetic materials to a more resilient viticulture sector. However, systematic data on Criolla market adoption, consumer preferences, and export performance in Latin America remain scarce, highlighting a key gap and a promising avenue for future research.

Vineyard Design and Training System

A study at INTA Mendoza found that east–west and northwest–southeast orientations, though uncommon in the region, enhanced phenolic compound concentration in Malbec grapes and wines by reducing radiation exposure and preventing the degradation of key chemical compounds, while the wines’ acidity and pH levels remained unchanged [36]. In the same way, canopy architecture significantly affects water use efficiency, with open or divided canopies proving more efficient than dense, constrained ones due to better leaf distribution [57]. Free cordon training is currently being tested in Mendoza to determine optimal leaf–fruit ratios and their impact on yield and berry composition [58]. Overhead systems (“parral” or “pergola”) protect bunches from direct radiation but face challenges in mechanization and cost. Although VSP has largely replaced them, free cordon systems are gaining ground to be more adapted for microclimate conditions [36]. A recent study by González et al. [59] demonstrated that the Malbec variety trellised to the single-high-wire system is able to self-regulate between vegetative and reproductive growth.

Canopy Management Practices

Research contribution about canopy management in the vineyard focuses on delayed phenology and strategies to decrease temperature in the cluster zone. Late pruning to delay basal bud development, and thus the grape ripening period, was tested. After 3 years of study, Morgani et al. [60] reported that it was possible to delay the phenological stages until veraison; the later the pruning, the greater was the delay in phenology (plants pruned at 8 separate leaves, delayed it almost a month). However, berry sugar accumulation occurred faster in those plants pruned at eight leaves and, consequently, the harvest date could not always be delayed. Among the practices to reduce temperature, shade nets over the canopy have been evaluated, and they reduce solar radiation and decrease the canopy temperature, as well as the canopy photosynthesis, which may slow down berry ripening. Reducing radiation by 35–60% with semi-shade nets applied to the bunch zone at the pepper-corn berry stage decreased berry temperature by 4 °C, helping to preserve acidity and phenolic compounds, and reducing soluble solids by up to 1.9 °Brix [61,62,63]. Water sprinkling (evaporative cooling) applied during the warmest hours of the day during berry ripening was also studied by Caravia et al. [64]. The study showed that although no differences in soluble solids (°Brix) were detected, sugar per berry was significantly higher in treated plants due to increased berry mass.

3.2. Brazil

Brazil’s harvested vineyard area in 2022 covered 74,520 ha, with table grapes and their derivate products increasing in prominence, particularly fresh grape exports from Pernambuco and Bahia (Submédio São Francisco Valley) [65]. The production of sparkling wines and grape juice in Rio Grande do Sul has been experiencing significant growth, driven by both domestic demand and expanding export markets [66]. Brazil has maintained global leadership in vineyard productivity, achieving an average yield of 23 tons per ha, a 16.84% increase [65]. Viticulture plays a significant socio-economic role in Brazil, serving as a primary source of income in several key regions [65]. The Serra Gaúcha in Rio Grande do Sul and various municipalities in São Paulo are dominated by small family farms; whereas, in the Submédio São Francisco Valley (northeast Brazil), grape production addresses small, medium, and large farms dedicated to table grapes, juice, and wine [67]. This diversity has reinforced viticulture as a major contributor to employment and economic growth [65].

Brazil is unique in hosting temperate, subtropical, and tropical vitiviniculture, each adapted to distinct edaphoclimatic conditions and production systems [67]. As a result, Brazil exhibits regional differences in grapevine phenology, production cycles, harvest timing, cultivars, and management practices [65]. Temperate viticulture in the south and southeast follows an annual cycle with winter dormancy, while subtropical viticulture, found in mild winter regions, generally has one production cycle per year, though management techniques can induce two harvests annually [30]. Tropical viticulture, predominant in the northeast, lacks a defined winter, preventing grapevines from undergoing physiological dormancy due to the absence of the required cold hours [68]. Grape production is highly region-specific [65]. Southern Brazil is characterized by the production of American and hybrid grapes destined for juice and wine elaboration; whereas, in other regions, both American (Vitis labrusca L. and hybrids) and European (Vitis vinifera L.) table grapes are grown for domestic consumption and export [69]. There is a growing trend in the industry toward seedless table grape production for international markets; while, in the south, the expansion of vinifera grape cultivation is expected to replace American and hybrid varieties [69].

3.2.1. Tropical Vitiviniculture

Most of the world’s viticultural regions are situated between the latitudes 40° to 50° N and 30° to 40° S, within what is commonly referred to as the temperate climate belt [70,71,72]. The viticulture has expanded significantly into tropical and subtropical regions across different continents [73], with countries such as Chile, Côte d’Ivoire, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru, India, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Philippines, Nigeria, Kenya, Tanzania, Madagascar, China, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Cuba emerging as producers [11].

In tropical viticulture regions, like Brazil’s São Francisco Valley, intra-annual climatic variability significantly influences grapevine physiology and fruit composition [65]. Variations in temperature, rainfall, and humidity throughout the year affect key physiological processes, including floral differentiation, bud fertility, phenology, and the growth of shoots and berries [67,68]. These climatic fluctuations are particularly impactful during the ripening phase, altering the synthesis of phenolic compounds and anthocyanins, which in turn affect grape color, sugar content, and acidity [74]. Consequently, both the yield and quality of the grapes can vary markedly between harvests in the first and second halves of the year [74]. In this way, during the spring–summer period, the viticultural climate can range from humid and very warm with warm nights to humid and temperate–warm with temperate nights. In the autumn–winter period, conditions shift to moderately dry and warm with temperate nights, or to subhumid and temperate with cool nights [74]. These seasonal variations highlight significant changes in temperature and humidity that can strongly influence grapevine development and grape quality across different harvests.

To address these challenges, the development of new cultivars and the implementation of specific management practices have been crucial in advancing viticulture in regions like Petrolina and Juazeiro [65]. The Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (Embrapa) has been instrumental in this progress, leading breeding programs since 1977 to develop grape varieties specifically adapted to Brazil’s diverse climatic conditions. These programs focus on achieving high-quality yields and enhancing disease resistance, particularly against prevalent fungal diseases such as downy mildew and powdery mildew [75]. The reduced need for fungicide applications in disease-resistant grape cultivars is a major advancement for economically viable and environmentally sustainable viticulture in Brazil. In tropical regions, traditional fine grape (Vitis vinifera L.) cultivation requires up to 70 annual fungicide sprayings to combat cryptogamic diseases (Metalaxil and Mancozeb), while grape cultivars like ‘Niágara Rosada’ (Vitis labrusca L.) require 35 sprayings, accounting for 20% of total production costs [76].

The ‘BRS Vitória’ grape is a black, seedless hybrid cultivar developed by Embrapa to meet the increasing demand for high-quality table grapes in Brazil. Released in 2012, this variety combines excellent agronomic performance, disease tolerance, and market appeal [75,76]. One of its main advantages is its tolerance to downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola), which significantly reduces the need for fungicide applications, making it more sustainable and cost-effective for growers [65]. BRS Vitória is known for its firm texture, sweet flavor with a raspberry-like taste, and uniform berry size, characteristics that make it highly competitive in both domestic and international markets [75]. It also demonstrates high bud fertility and a strong reproductive capacity, which allows for high yields even in tropical and subtropical conditions [77]. Rootstocks play a crucial role in optimizing the performance of BRS Vitória, influencing vine vigor, fruit quality, yield potential, and resistance to environmental stresses [77,78]. The viticultural performance of BRS Vitória is significantly influenced by rootstock selection, affecting productivity, fruit quality, and environmental adaptation. Rootstocks, such as Harmony, have enhanced its berry size and cluster weight, whereas IAC 766 and 1103 Paulsen provided greater yield stability across multiple harvests [77]. In terms of fruit quality, Harmony slightly reduced the sugar concentration, while IAC 572 and Freedom increased the sugar levels, making them ideal for premium table grape production. A key challenge with BRS Vitória is its naturally compact bunch structure, which can impact ventilation and increase the risk of fungal diseases. The research recommends berry-cluster thinning at the 7–18 mm berry diameter stage to prevent excessive bunch compactness while maintaining optimal yields [79]. Additionally, recent studies have explored bio-fertigation with aquaculture wastewater, demonstrating that BRS Vitória responds well to alternative fertilization methods, achieving a 22% higher yield compared to conventional systems [80]. The development and optimization of BRS Vitória stand as a testament to the advancements of Brazilian research in viticulture, showcasing innovative breeding, sustainable management practices, and adaptability to tropical conditions, positioning Brazil as a global reference in the production of high-quality seedless table grapes.

3.2.2. Heavy Metals

Mitigating heavy metal accumulation in vineyard soils is fundamental for achieving sustainable viticulture, as it safeguards soil health, preserves agricultural productivity, and minimizes environmental risks [81]. Addressing this challenge directly supports broader climate adaptation strategies and aligns with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), and SDG 15 (Life on Land).

Soil pollution is defined as the occurrence of chemicals or substances in locations where they do not naturally exist or at concentrations above typical levels, leading to harmful effects on a wide range of organisms [81]. Heavy metals, such as Cu and Zn, originate from human activities, but some contaminants naturally occur in soils as mineral components and can become toxic when their concentrations are excessively high [82]. Many regions of Brazil are characterized by a humid subtropical climate, in which there is frequent precipitation throughout the growing cycle, creating favorable conditions for the development of fungal diseases [83]. As a result, grapevines are repeatedly treated with Cu-based fungicides, such as Bordeaux mixture, copper oxychloride, and fungicides containing Zn and Mn, such as Mancozeb, that contribute to the accumulation of Cu, Zn, and Mn in vineyard soils [83,84,85]. The growing-season cycle can lead to the application of 6.76 kg Cu/ha per year and 2.00 kg Zn/ha per year [86], often resulting in excessive accumulation of these metals in vineyard and orchard soils [87,88]. In addition, recent studies have suggested that elevated Cu and Zn levels in vineyard soils can increase the Mn uptake by grapevines, presenting an additional challenge for vineyard management [83,89]. This phenomenon occurs because high Cu and Zn concentrations alter the rhizosphere environment, stimulating the exudation of organic acids that modify pH levels in the soil. As a consequence, insoluble Mn compounds become solubilized and available for plant absorption, potentially leading to toxicity symptoms in the vineyard [90].

The accumulation of heavy metals in vineyard soils is influenced by different factors, including vineyard age, fungicide application frequency, soil type, soil organic matter content, and soil management [91,92]. The vineyard age is a key indicator due to the intensive use of fungicides in viticulture [84,87,90]. For young vineyards established in areas with no prior history of cupric fungicide applications, the soil Cu levels tend to be low, reaching a mean of 12.4 mg/kg in a five-year-old vineyard [84]. By contrast, long-term vineyard cultivation leads to progressive Cu accumulation, which was recorded as 583 mg/kg in a 40-year-old vineyard and 1300 mg/kg in a 120-year-old vineyard [87,93], highlighting the impact of prolonged fungicide applications [86]. Climatic conditions, particularly rainfall, influence Cu retention and leaching in vineyard soils. Copper concentrations ranged from 75 to 500 mg/kg in vineyards located in semi-arid regions with annual rainfall between 350 and 750 mm, whereas Cu accumulation reached 3200 mg/kg in the humid southern region of Brazil, where rainfall varies from 1700 to 2000 mm annually [94]. These findings demonstrate that high precipitation can exacerbate Cu accumulation in vineyard soils.

To reduce the negative effects of heavy metals accumulation on cultivated vines, the implementation of tolerance-based strategies is essential [86]. The tolerance levels of different grapevine genotypes and varieties to heavy metal stress can vary significantly among them [95,96]. Magnolia (Vitis rotundifolia M.) has exhibited the highest tolerance to elevated Cu levels compared to IAC 572 [(V. riparia × V. rupestris) × V. caribaea] and 1103 Paulsen (V. berlandieri × V. rupestris) since its root system shows minimal structural damage at 60 μM Cu [95]. Bastardo proved to be more tolerant than Verdelho and Donzelinho Branco (V. vinifera L.) grapevine varieties to higher Zn concentration due to the inhibition of root elongation and the leaf and root nucleolar activity changes [96]. Nutrient management strategies can also mitigate Cu phytotoxicity [86]. The role of phosphorus (P) in reducing Cu toxicity was highlighted by Morsch et al. [95], where P application helped minimize root cap reduction, early tissue differentiation, and excessive lateral root formation near the meristem. Similar beneficial effects of P (100 mg/kg) on root anatomy have also been observed in cover crops exposed to high Cu concentrations from 30 to 60 mg/kg [97]. Liming can mitigate Cu-induced morphological and anatomical alterations in grapevine roots [86]. This effect is attributed to pH elevation, which reduces Cu availability, along with increase Ca and Mg levels in the soil, protecting vine roots from heavy metal toxicity [98]. These findings suggest that the interaction between heavy metals and essential nutrients plays a crucial role in alleviating phytotoxic effects, offering viable strategies to extend the productive lifespan of vineyard soils. This research work is highly relevant to global viticulture since it addresses one of the major challenges faced by viticulturists worldwide: the accumulation of heavy metals in soils due to prolonged fungicide use.

3.3. Chile

Chile is the world’s largest exporter of fresh grapes and ranks fourth in global wine exports, following Spain, France, and Italy [33]. The country’s wine development model has been largely regarded as economically beneficial, as it fosters industrialization, intensive labor, capital and technological investment, and compatibility with small-scale farming [99]. However, the rapid expansion of the Chilean wine industry has also led to negative consequences, particularly for small-scale grape growers in the Itata, Biobío, and Maule valleys. The rise in grape prices, driven by the demands of large-scale wine production, has put economic pressure on traditional viticulturists, forcing many to either abandon viticulture or convert their vineyards into forestry plantations [100]. This transition has resulted in a decline in vineyard surface area in these historically significant valleys, leading to the loss of old vineyards containing unexplored genetic material. Despite this, some producers remain committed to preserving traditional winemaking practices, investing in their own wineries, and organizing through guilds to sustain their heritage [11]. Over the last few decades, the dominant discourse in Chilean viticulture has been shaped by a positivist economic perspective, which prioritizes high-yield, export-driven wine production while undervaluing the cultural and historical significance of traditional grape varieties and regional wines. This marginalization affects not only the Biobío and Itata valleys but Codpa, Pica, Maule, Malleco, Cautín, and other southern viticultural regions, relegating them to a secondary or tertiary role within the national wine sector [100]. Recent studies on minority and autochthonous grape varieties have highlighted their genetic diversity, adaptability, and enological potential, positioning them as valuable resources for sustainable viticulture in the face of climate change [11]. This section will examine the importance of traditional viticultural regions, their historical grape varieties, and the challenges they face, emphasizing their potential to drive global research and innovations in sustainable viticulture, while ensuring the preservation and valorization of Chile’s unique wine heritage.

3.3.1. Heroic Vitiviniculture

The Itata Valley is an example of heroic viticulture (Figure 1) since it is characterized by challenging conditions, such as steep slopes, rainfed vineyards, and traditional head-trained vines [101]. This region, among Chile’s oldest wine-producing areas, faces numerous environmental and socio-economic challenges that impact its viticultural practices. Tillage for soil preparation and weed control using draft animal plows can contribute to the formation of a compact soil layer [102]. This compaction can alter soil structure, reducing infiltration and promoting preferential water flow downslope, which may increase the risk of erosion and surface runoff. The region’s high geomorphological variability, diverse soil formations, and parent materials create pedogenic heterogeneity. These soils, typically clayey with slow infiltration, are found on steep slopes (20–30%), making them highly susceptible to erosion, surface horizon loss, and gully formation [101]. Vineyards in the Itata Valley, established along a catena, display significant variability in both vegetative growth and reproductive development [101]. This variation is partly attributed to differences in water availability among vines throughout the growing season, leading to heterogeneous plant responses [101].

The water status of grapevines plays a crucial role in maintaining cellular turgor and photosynthetic capacity, which are essential for plant growth and organ development [103]. The study of hydric behavior in these slope vineyards is crucial due to their dryland conditions, where vines are usually not irrigated and use only the rainfall for water availability [101]. The severity of water stress in vines planted along a catena in the Itata Valley has previously been studied, where the elevation difference between the foot slope and the summit was 11 m [104]. The plant water status presented not significant variations in midday stem water potential (ΨS_WP) between vigorous vines on the foot slope and weaker vines on the summit, both registering a ΨS_WP close to −0.9 MPa [104]. However, water potential variability was nearly twice as high at the summit compared to the foot slope, indicating greater heterogeneity in water availability at higher elevations under these conditions [101].

Head training system is one of the oldest and most cost-effective systems used in viticulture to establish vine architecture, allowing the plant to support its own weight while remaining close to the ground. Also known as bush training or goblet training, this system consists of a central trunk from which either spurs or canes emerge [101]. In the Itata Valley, grape growers typically position the fruiting zone either at ground level or between 0.5 and 1.0 m above the ground [101]. The head training system is generally less productive than other vine training methods due to its limited leaf area coverage and reduced soil exploration [101,105]. In the Itata Valley, head-trained Muscat of Alexandria vines under dry-farmed conditions yielded one-half less than their irrigated, pergola-trained system [106]. The low yield was attributed to both fewer clusters per vine and reduced cluster weight, influenced by the water-limited environment where vines compete for scarce soil moisture [101].

The low water-holding capacity of Itata’s soils, combined with high evaporation rates driven by strong winds, likely depletes soil moisture weeks before harvest, leading to moderate water stress in rainfed vines [101]. Studies on Listán Prieto (cv. País) vines (Figure 2) grown along a catena confirmed that rainfed vines experienced water stress after harvest [101], potentially affecting berry differentiation for the following season [107]. Despite its limitations, low-head training has historically been used in cold climates to enhance berry ripening by leveraging soil heat radiation [101]. Research in South Africa found that head-trained vines exhibited the highest grape and soil temperatures among different training systems [108]. Studies of the vertical temperature gradient in the canopy revealed that increased trunk height is not likely to significantly delay ripeness, but it could minimize the potential damages of both frost and heat wave events [109]. In addition, the type of vineyard management significantly influenced temperature dynamics near the ground. Vineyards with cover crops generally experienced lower minimum temperatures and higher maximum temperatures compared to tilled parcels, increasing the risk of both frost damage and heat stress [109]. In the Itata Valley, observations of head-trained Muscat of Alexandria vines under rainfed conditions showed that, during veraison, air temperatures in the fruiting zone ranged between 30 and 35 °C for nearly half of the day [110]. Although Muscat of Alexandria vines in dry-farmed head-trained systems produced low cluster weights, the berries typically reached 21–24 °Brix at harvest, demonstrating that water stress and high temperatures did not lead to excessive dehydration or over-ripening (>25 °Brix) [110]. These findings suggest that, despite environmental challenges of heroic viticulture, the traditional training system and practices remain viable for sustainable viticulture, balancing grape ripening and water conservation under dryland conditions.

3.3.2. Southern Chilean Vitiviniculture

Climate change has significantly influenced the distribution of grapevine varieties across wine-growing regions worldwide [111,112,113]. In Chile’s central valleys, rising temperatures and an increase in heat unit accumulation during the growing season have notably impacted vine cultivation [114]. Bioclimatic indices indicate that, over the past three decades, most Chilean viticultural valleys have experienced a shift towards warmer climate classifications [114], making the southern valleys increasingly suitable for viticulture [114]. Notwithstanding, central and southern Chilean valleys have faced a notable rise in extreme heat events, with temperatures exceeding 35 °C, negatively affecting grape and wine production [114,115]. This climatic transition is changing Chile’s viticultural landscape, prompting new opportunities and challenges for sustainable wine production in previously unexplored regions.

The study of climate trends in viticultural regions is critical for the global wine industry, as climate change increasingly affects grapevine growth, fruit composition, and wine production. An understanding of long-term climatic shifts and variability helps stakeholders adapt viticultural practices, optimize grape variety selection, and mitigate risks associated with extreme weather events [116]. This type of research is particularly valuable for southern Chilean viticulture [117], as the region is emerging as a new frontier for wine production due to climate change, offering cooler temperatures, increased rainfall, and unique terroirs that contrast with the warming trends in central Chile [118].

An analysis of weather stations, from 1985 to 2014, in southern Chile displayed significant climatic variation, which is crucial for understanding viticultural potential in the region (

Table 1. Geographical data and average meteorological and risk indices (1985–2015) for weather stations in southern Chile.

Weather Station Name	Location SL; WL	Tmin (°C)	Tmax (°C)	PP (mm)	Day T > 30 °C	Day T > 35 °C	Day T < 0 °C
Traiguén	−38.26; −72.65	7.0	17.8	1002.2	8.3	0.6	1.9
Carillanca	−38.68; −72.42	5.6	17.5	1310.7	6.0	0.6	12.9
Maquehue	−38.77; −72.64	6.3	18.0	1128.8	6.5	0.7	8.0
Osorno	−40.59; −73.11	6.3	16.9	1273.2	2.7	0.0	5.3
Puerto Montt	−40.61; −73.06	6.3	14.9	1596.3	0.3	0.0	6.5
Frutillar	−41.15; −73.05	5.8	15.0	1212.6	1.5	0.0	0.0
Purranque	−41.44; −73.10	5.7	16.2	1287.7	1.8	0.0	7.0
Cañal Bajo	−40.61; −73.06	5.9	16.6	1232.0	2.0	0.0	9.7
Remehue	−40.52; −73.07	5.8	16.6	1231.1	2.1	0.1	9.3
Coyhaique	−45.57; −72.03	3.9	13.2	895.6	0.9	0.0	15.4

Tmin: minimum temperature; Tmax: maximum temperature; PP: precipitation; T: temperature. Data extracted from the publication of Verdugo-Vásquez et al. [114].

). Minimum temperatures (Tmin) ranged from 3.9 to 7.0 °C (Coyhaique and Traiguén, respectively), whereas maximum temperatures (Tmax) varied between 13.2 and 18.0 °C (Coyhaique and Maquehue, respectively). Days with temperatures above 30 °C were generally low, with Traiguén (8.3 days) showing the highest occurrence. Extreme heat events (>35 °C) were rare, occurring in only a few locations, with a maximum of 0.7 days per year in Maquehue. Frost events were more frequent in Coyhaique (15.4 days), Carillanca (12.9 days), and Purranque (7.0 days), which may pose risks for early vine growth and bud development. This data confirms that the southern Chilean wine regions are cool-climate viticultural zones with significant rainfall, and a low incidence of extreme heat events.

Table 2. Bioclimatic Indices for Southern Chilean Weather Stations (1985–2015).

Weather Station Name	GST (°C)	GDD (Heat Units)	BEDD (Heat Units)	HI (Heat Units)	CI (°C)	SONMean (Heat Units)	SONMax (Heat Units)
Traiguén	15.1	1104.3	1009.2	1655.8	9.0	1069.7	1580.4
Carillanca	14.0	883.9	883.0	1479.3	7.3	1015.6	1556.3
Maquehue	14.5	970.3	944.0	1558.8	7.8	1053.7	1596
Osorno	13.9	859.9	1393.8	819.1	7.9	1016.0	1503.7
Puerto Montt	12.6	601.4	1008.0	523.8	8.1	916.7	1331.2
Frutillar	11.7	434.9	860.2	409.5	6.6	927.2	1330.7
Purranque	13.2	727.4	1248.2	701.2	7.4	953.7	1434.6
Cañal Bajo	13.4	774.6	1308.8	754.0	7.3	986.2	1477.2
Remehue	13.4	764.0	1311.0	750.4	7.4	979.1	1482.7
Coyhaique	11.4	467.1	915.0	467.0	6.4	793.7	1258.4

Data extracted from the publication of Verdugo-Vásquez et al. [114]. GST: growing season temperature; GDD: growing degree days; BEDD: biologically effective degree days; HI: Huglin’s Index; CI: cold night index; SONMax: maximum spring temperature summation; SONMean: mean spring temperature summation.

presents bioclimatic indices calculated for various weather stations in southern Chile, covering the period 1985–2015. These indices are essential for assessing the suitability of different regions for viticulture, helping to determine the potential for grape ripening, climate constraints, and vineyard management strategies [119]. The growing season temperature (GST) ranged from 11.4 to 15.1 °C (Coyhaique and Traiguén), indicating a cool-climate viticultural potential [111], particularly in the northern stations like Traiguén, Carillanca, and Maquehue. Higher growing degree days (GDD) values were recorded in Traiguén and Maquehue, indicating more favorable conditions for ripening early- to mid-season grape varieties [120]. By contrast, Coyhaique and Frutillar exhibited the lowest GDD values, suggesting that these locations may be unsuitable for commercial viticulture due to insufficient heat accumulation for proper grape ripening [111]. The biologically effective degree days (BEDD) values were highest in Traiguén and Maquehue, indicating better heat accumulation for grape maturation, while the lowest values were observed in Frutillar and Coyhaique, suggesting limitations for berry ripening. The Huglin index (HI) followed a similar pattern, with Traiguén and Maquehue showing the highest values, making them the most suitable locations for cool- to moderate-climate grape varieties, whereas Frutillar and Coyhaique exhibited the lowest HI, reinforcing their marginal viticultural potential. The cool night index (CI) values ranged between 6.4 and 9.0 °C (Coyhaique and Traiguén, respectively), indicating very cool night conditions, which are beneficial for acidity preservation and aroma development in grapes [121]. The mean spring temperature summation (SONMean) was highest in Traiguén and Maquehue, suggesting more favorable early vine development compared to Coyhaique. Similarly, the maximum spring temperature summation (SONMax) showed the highest values in Traiguén and Maquehue, indicating a greater heat accumulation during early growth stages, while Frutillar and Coyhaique recorded the lowest values. These findings suggest that Traiguén and Maquehue are the most promising locations for viticulture in southern Chile, whereas Frutillar and Coyhaique face greater climatic limitations for grape cultivation.

From 1985 to 2015, the weather stations in southern Chile exhibited different climatic trends with notable regional variations (

Table 3. Trends for meteorological, bioclimatic, and risk indices and for southern Chilean Weather Stations (1985–2015).

Weather Station Name	Tmin (°C)	Tmax (°C)	PP (mm)	Day T > 30 °C	Day T > 35 °C	Day T < 0 °C	GST	GDD	HI	BEDD	CI	SONMean	SON-Max
Traiguén	−0.025	0.027	2.7	0.200	0.000	0.000	0.006	0.415	3.524	1.499	−0.003	−0.566	1.665
Carillanca	−0.017	0.002	−6.9	0.091	0.001	0.118	−0.012	−2.089	−1.951	−2.975	−0.004	−1.288	−0.228
Maquehue	−0.017	0.021	−2.4	0.222	0.048	0.278	0.006	1.135	4.167	1.801	−0.016	−1.107	0.588
Osorno	0.043	−0.033	−5.1	0.000	0.000	−0.259	0.009	2.030	−2.942	−1.952	0.061	−0.643	−5.553
Puerto Montt	0.001	0.004	−3.2	0.000	0.000	0.077	0.003	1.000	1.772	1.506	−0.006	−0.821	−1.262
Frutillar	−0.020	−0.050	−11.0	0.000	0.000	0.000	−0.002	1.270	0.915	2.114	0.027	−6.743	−10.280
Purranque	0.029	0.000	7.9	0.125	0.000	−0.235	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
Cañal Bajo	0.001	0.018	−1.4	0.050	0.000	−0.091	0.009	2.069	3.363	1.974	−0.008	0.131	−0.433
Remehue	0.035	−0.003	0.9	0.050	0.000	−0.222	0.024	4.425	2.564	2.233	0.060	0.853	−0.743
Coyhaique	0.025	−0.041	1.1	0.138	0.000	0.071	−0.013	−0.844	−5.594	−4.259	0.013	−2.877	−6.018

Data extracted from the publication of Verdugo-Vásquez et al. [114]. Tmin: minimum temperature; Tmax: maximum temperature; PP: precipitation; T: temperature; GST: growing season temperature; GDD: growing degree days; BEDD: biologically effective degree days; HI: Huglin’s index; CI: cold night index; SONMax: maximum spring temperature summation; SONMean: mean spring temperature summation. The red color indicates significance with a confidence level of 95 % (p-value < 0.05) according to the Mann–Kendall test.

). Significant climate trends in southern Chile indicated warmer nights, drier conditions in key regions, more frequent hot days, fewer frost days, and altered seasonal temperature patterns. The Tmin significantly increased in Osorno (+0.043 °C per year) and Remehue (+0.035 °C per year) but declined in Traiguén (−0.025 °C per year), while the Tmax significantly decreased in Osorno (−0.033 °C per year), Frutillar (−0.050 °C per year), and Coyhaique (−0.041 °C per year) but increased in Maquehue (+0.021 °C per year). The risk of hot days (T > 30 °C) increased significantly in Maquehue (+0.222 day per year), Purranque (+0.125 day per year), and Coyhaique (+0.138 day per year), while frost days (T < 0 °C) significantly decreased in Osorno (−0.259 day per year) and Remehue (−0.222 day per year), and Maquehue (+0.278 days per year) recorded a significant increase. The GST and GDD significantly increased in Remehue (0.024 and 4.425 heat units per year, respectively). The HI trends in Coyhaique significantly decreased (−5.594 heat units per year), whereas the CI increased significantly in Osorno (+0.061 °C per year). Spring temperatures (SONMean, SONMax) significantly cooled in Osorno, Frutillar, and Coyhaique. The observed increase in temperatures and heat unit accumulation, even the decrease in frost days in some stations of the Los Lagos region, may improve the potential for viticulture expansion. However, given that the mean GDD remained relatively low (Table 2), this trend would primarily support the cultivation of grape varieties with very low heat requirements [111], as higher temperature thresholds necessary for the production of traditional dry wines may not yet be met. The warmer areas located in La Araucanía region may be suitable for early-ripening varieties, while cooler locations in La Araucanía and Los Lagos regions could support the production of sparkling wines if frost risks and heat accumulation are managed effectively.

This information provides a real-world example of climate change-driven viticultural expansion and serves as a valuable dataset for global comparisons of emerging wine regions. The documentation of climate trends and their potential impact on grape cultivation can support sustainable viticulture planning, contributing to broader discussions on agricultural adaptation to climate variability [122]. These bioclimatic trends are already materializing into concrete viticultural expansion efforts in southern Chile. New vineyards are being established in Chile Chico (Aysén region, ~46°32′ S) as well as in some locations of the Los Ríos and Los Lagos regions (~39° to 42° S), where viticulture is targeting cool-climate varieties suited for sparkling and aromatic white wines. These developments highlight how climate-driven shifts, reflected in the indices analyzed, are actively changing the Chilean viticultural map. By advancing research on climate adaptation, cultivar selection, and viticultural practices, this information enhances both scientific knowledge and practical applications in the global grape and wine industry, supporting its sustainable production and future resilience.

3.4. Hispaniola

Hispaniola island is located in the western Caribbean and divides into the Republic of Haiti on the western third and the Dominican Republic on the eastern two-thirds. Hispaniola is the most populous island in the West Indies, and the second largest by land area, after Cuba.

3.4.1. Haitian Vitiviniculture

Haiti is located in the low subtropical region (18–20° N latitude), falling within the transitional zone between the tropical and warm temperate regions [123]. The climate is characterized by the absence of frost at low elevations and a wider temperature range compared to the deep tropics [123]. Haiti’s climate is primarily shaped by its geographical position in the Caribbean and its mountainous terrain, which influence weather patterns and natural phenomena [123,124]. The country is frequently impacted by hurricanes, tropical storms, and natural fires, all driven by broader Caribbean climate dynamics, which have played a crucial role in shaping its natural ecosystems [124,125]. Haiti is indeed one of the country’s most susceptible to the consequences of climate change [125]. Rainfall varies significantly, ranging from less than 400 mm in the arid and semi-arid coastal zones of the northwest to over 3000 mm in the mountainous southwest [123]. The wettest areas are the Massif de la Hotte and the Massif de la Selle, home to Pic la Selle, the highest peak at 2684 m, where precipitation is most abundant [123]. In Haiti, igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rock formations are present, with sedimentary limestone deposits from the middle and upper Eocene era comprising 80% of the country’s geology [123]. As a result, Haitian soils are primarily limestone-based, moderately young, and fertile, with a neutral to alkaline pH [123]. The precipitation increases and evapotranspiration decreases with elevation [123]. Most rainfall is orographic, generated as warm, moist air rises over the mountainous terrain [123]. These humid montane regions serve as the primary water sources, feeding rivers, streams, and aquifers within the highly porous limestone substratum [123].

The Ministry of Economy and Finance (MEF) of Haiti allocated 50 ha of land to the agricultural company Le Vieux-Chardo in 2021 to promote viticulture development in Chardonnières, aiming to support land rehabilitation and generate employment within the sector. However, beyond this initiative, detailed data on vineyard areas, yields, or export volumes in Haiti are scarce. This lack of information is largely due to the country’s economic challenges, including limited institutional capacity for agricultural data collection and dissemination. According to the World Bank, Haiti’s GDP per capita in 2022 was approximately USD 1790, reflecting its status as one of the poorest countries in the Western Hemisphere. Additionally, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) reported that 41.3% of Haiti’s population lives in multidimensional poverty, with an additional 21.8% classified as vulnerable to multidimensional poverty.

Haitian viticulture is primarily concentrated in Chardonnières (18.2747° N, −74.1644° W), a region bordered by the Massif de la Hotte mountains to the north and the Caribbean Sea to the south [32]. According to the Köppen climate classification, Chardonnières experiences a tropical dry climate (Aw), characterized by limited chilling hours, which are essential for grapevine dormancy and optimal fruit production [32]. Due to this constraint, alternative vineyard locations with higher elevations and cooler conditions, such as Paillant (18.41841° N, −73.143° W), are recommended for improved grape cultivation [32]. The soils of Chardonnières are predominantly calcareous, often leading to iron deficiencies, which can negatively impact vine growth and grape quality [32]. Vine training in the region follows a random overhead system, a technique that provides natural shade to protect the vines from excessive heat and water loss [32]. The vine cultivation in Chardonnières faces significant challenges due to fungal diseases, particularly downy mildew, and powdery mildew [32]. In general, conventional disease management practices are employed by viticulturists, some local growers also use spiritual methods or magic for crop protection (Figure 3) that should be scientifically evaluated. This unique blend of modern viticulture and cultural traditions highlights both the potential and challenges of developing a sustainable wine industry in Haiti.

3.4.2. Dominican Vitiviniculture

The introduction of grapevine cuttings to the Dominican Republic dates back to the 1490s and early 1500s, when Spanish colonizers first brought vines to the island [126]. However, despite this early introduction, viticulture did not establish itself as a dominant agricultural sector, primarily due to the hot and humid tropical climate, which posed challenges for traditional grape cultivation [32]. Since the 1980s, grape and wine consumption in the Dominican Republic has seen steady growth, driven by an expanding tourism industry, rising consumer interest in wine culture, and increased accessibility to imported wines [32,126]. The national vineyard area for grape production is estimated at approximately 300 hectares, with most of the vineyards concentrated in the Neiba Mountain Range, where altitude and microclimatic conditions provide a more suitable environment for grape cultivation [126]. Despite this local production, the vast majority of wine consumed in the country is imported, with wines from Spain, Chile, Argentina, and the United States dominating the market [32,126]. The primary focus of viticulture in the Dominican Republic is the production of table grapes, with Red Globe being the dominant variety cultivated [32,126]. However, there is also a small but growing wine industry, led by the Industria Vinícola de Neiba, which has been actively promoting wine production using European grapevine varieties, such as Tempranillo and Syrah (Figure 4). These wines, while still niche products, represent an important step toward expanding and diversifying the country’s viticultural sector.

3.5. Uruguay

Uruguay has 5912 hectares of vineyards, with 88.1% concentrated in the south (Canelones, Montevideo, Colonia, and San José Departments) [127]. In 2024, the country produced 92,976,613 kg of grapes, 97% of which were used for winemaking. The Uruguayan wine sector is characterized by small and medium-sized family producers with a strong immigrant heritage, with 71.7% of producers managing less than 20 hectares. The most widely planted varieties are Tannat, Merlot, Moscatel de Hamburgo, and Ugni Blanc, with Tannat recognized as the flagship variety due to its adaptability to the local environment.

Winegrowing in Uruguay is an immigrant-driven sector, where cultural traditions remain deeply embedded in production and sales [128]. As Vitale explored, winegrowing holds cultural and identity-related significance, closely tied to the immigrant communities that founded and shaped the sector [129]. Immigrants played a key role in modernizing Uruguayan agriculture in the late nineteenth century, an influence that endures today, particularly in winegrowing, where they and their descendants remain dominant [129]. Labor practices, the valuation of work, and the cultural understandings of labor remain central to these enduring immigrant traditions.

In recent decades, the vineyard surface area has declined, and national production has fluctuated because of climate variability despite technological advancements in viticulture and winemaking. The sector now faces key challenges, including preventing the disappearance of small family producers, enhancing product competitiveness at both the national (in terms of profitability) and international levels, and ensuring the sustainability of production systems, economically, socially, and environmentally. In this context, recent studies have explored the notion of terroir at different scales and the adaptation strategies needed to address climate change and variability.

3.5.1. The Pathway of the Climate as a Terroir Component and Typicity

Several studies developed in Uruguay have defined different terroir components, and in this section, we show the evidence of different research on climate. Climate is a significant factor in the physical environment influencing terroir expression [130]. At the macro-scale, Ferrer et al. [131] proposed for Uruguay the viticultural regionalization based on the multicriteria climate system [121], through the climatic data for 30 years (1961–1990) from 23 meteorological stations that meet the WMO (World Meteorology Organization) standards and are distributed throughout the territory. Through the calculation of three indices (the Huglin index (HI), the cold night index (CI), and the drought index (IS)), Ferrer et al. [131] determined six climate classes for viticulture, and they corroborated that the Uruguayan climate conditions are adequate for viticulture (Figure 5). In this study, the authors determined the sugar content, and the cycle length related to the HI values. The established correlation of HI with the sugar content is different between the varieties: Merlot R = 0.85 (p-value < 0.01), Tannat R= 0.84 (p-value < 0.01), and Cabernet Sauvignon, R = 0.83 (p-value = 0.001). The map shows that the sugar content increases from south to north as the HI increases (Figure 5). For the calculation of the cycle duration, the number of days from 1st September (the date of bud break of the HS vine and the start of the HI heat summation) to the date of harvest from the affidavit was counted. The data processed for 2001–2004 were analyzed in 10 departments where the three varieties were present, and the vegetative cycle of the varieties follows the same trend as sugar accumulation.

Ferrer et al. [132] corroborated the proposed climatic delimitation, analyzing the effect of the environment using vine response and grape composition as indicators. Four Tannat grafted onto SO4 (V. berlandieri × V. riparia) vineyards in three different climatic regions of Uruguay were studied in 2008 and 2009: Salto (moderate drought, warm, with warm nights “warm climate”), Colonia (moderate drought, warm temperate, with warm nights “temperate-warm” climate), and Canelones (moderate drought, temperate, temperate nights “temperate climate”). The discriminating climate variables were thermal accumulation and rainfall. From the plant response, the ripening period was shorter in the warm climate (Salto) than in the other two regions (Colonia and Canelones). Salvarrey et al. [133] determined the precocity of the cycle of this variety in the warm climate (Salto) compared to the temperate climate (Canelones) of between 18 and 42 days depending on the conditions of the season. Terroir influence was reflected in must composition, particularly in sugar and anthocyanin levels.

Local factors, such as topography (altitude, slope and exposure) and proximity to bodies of water, such as oceans, lakes or rivers, cause climatic variations more significant than the climatic variability given at a larger scale within a wine region [134]. Fourment et al. [135] demonstrated in Canelones the thermal impact of La Plata River in the region. Temperatures fell by more than 4 °C between 10 a.m. and 2 p.m. (local time) in all south-facing plots on the hottest day of summer 2012. The drop in temperature was smaller and of shorter duration and was recorded up to 30 km inside the vineyards. In extreme thermal conditions at the heart of the grape ripening period, the impact of the breeze on temperatures in the wine-growing region can reduce heat stress for photosynthetic activity, and thus benefit the development of primary and secondary components in the grapes. In that sense, Fourment et al. [136] showed the impact on Tannat responses to the spatial variability of temperature were different over the vintages; correlations between secondary metabolites and temperature were higher than those between primary metabolites, and correlation values between berry composition and climate variables increased when ripening occurred under dry conditions (below average rainfall). The plots with greater thermal accumulation (at a greater distance from the sea) did not result in earlier phenological stages, which is evidence of the effect of management practices on vine development [137]. In another coastal region in eastern Uruguay, Tachini et al. [138] and Fourment et al. [139] showed the impact of altitude and the Atlantic Ocean exposure on Tannat and Albariño varieties. Altitude and exposure to oceanic winds were the main factors causing temperature variability at the mesoscale, while the effect of sun exposure was not significant. Thermal differences were observed in the extreme values (minimum and maximum temperatures), where high areas exposed to sea breezes reach lower temperatures during the day, while low, concave areas protected from oceanic winds reach the highest values [138]. However, during the night, the high plots were the warmest as the cool air drained towards the low areas, causing a greater thermal amplitude in these areas. For Tannat, plots at higher altitude recorded significantly greater malic acid (+1.7 g L⁻¹), while plots at lower altitude recorded greater anthocyanin potential (+1920 mg L⁻¹) [138,140]. For Albariño, the temperature differences within the vineyards affected grape composition more than yield, showing how adaptable this white cultivar is to changing climates. Albariño’s response to ocean exposure is demonstrated in its sugar and acidity, with the biggest differences seen during the very hot and dry conditions of 2023 (the hottest season in the last 30 years) [139]. In that sense, the characterization of the region concerning its topoclimate and its response to the vine will allow agronomic decisions aimed at enhancing the typicity of the terroir.

3.5.2. Adaptation to Climate Change and Variability

Impacts of Climate Change

In the Southeastern South America (SES) region, rainfall patterns have undergone significant changes, particularly during the warm season, with a strong positive trend in annual precipitation since the early 20th century [141]. This trend includes an increase in heavy rainfall events and a greater frequency of extratropical cyclones, highlighting the region’s evolving climate dynamics. In Uruguay’s wine-growing regions, temperature analysis based on data from the INUMET Rocha meteorological station (34°48′ S; 54°30′ W) over the past 32 years (1991–2023) shows a statistically significant increase in days with temperatures above 30 °C, particularly in the last four years. This warming trend accelerates the grape ripening period, altering grape composition and, consequently, the typicity of the wines [142]. A rainfall analysis by Tachini et al. [143], using data from two WMO-endorsed weather stations, INIA Las Brujas (34°64′ S; 56°33′ W) in Canelones (southern Uruguay) and INUMET Rocha (eastern Uruguay), revealed an average precipitation of 608 mm per growing cycle (1 September–15 March), with Rocha receiving 127 mm more than Canelones. Seasonal variability is pronounced, with rainfall ranging from a minimum of 189 mm in Canelones, falling below the minimum water requirement of 300–600 mm for humid climates [144], to a maximum of 1154 mm in Rocha, reflecting a 940 mm difference between the driest and wettest seasons (Figure 6). The number of rainy days averages 59 per cycle, occurring approximately every 3.3 days, with Rocha experiencing significantly more light rain events (1–10 mm) than Canelones. Drought periods, measured as 15 consecutive days with less than 6 mm of accumulated rainfall, vary between 0 and 57 days at Canelones and up to 50 days in Rocha, necessitating rapid adaptation by vine growers. Future projections from the IPCC indicate, with high confidence, an increase in mean air temperature and extreme heat events, along with a rise in the frequency of warm nights exceeding that of warm days. Precipitation is expected to increase, potentially intensifying pluvial and river floods, while drought projections for the River Plate basin suggest a higher frequency in the medium and long term, though the severity and duration remain uncertain, especially under the extreme emission scenario (RCP8.5) [141]. The seasonal temperature variability in southern and eastern Uruguay is highly influenced by precipitation patterns linked to the large-scale ENSO, while spatial temperature variability is significantly influenced by the local factor of the proximity of the Atlantic Ocean or La Plata River [136,139].

Perception of Climate Change by Viticulturists

A study conducted by Fourment et al. [44] applied 41 semi-direct interviews to analyze how Uruguayan viticulturists perceive climate change, providing an outstanding contribution to understanding local adaptation strategies. Their research revealed that producers recognize both local climate variability and significant inter-annual variations, which they associate with the quality of grape harvests and wine production. Notably, 71% of respondents observed an increase in extreme weather events, such as intense storms, strong winds, and hail, highlighting their growing concern over climatic instability. The study also found disparities in perceptions: while small-scale farmers, who closely monitor vineyard conditions, were more aware of climate change impacts, larger producers exhibited greater skepticism, despite being more informed about the scientific aspects of climate change [145,146].

The study further underscored how climate hazards, particularly summer rainfall, directly influence vine phenology, which is crucial for grape yield and composition. Excess water availability enhances vegetative growth, creating competition for resources that delays grape ripening and disrupts the synthesis of key compounds. Additionally, increased canopy size alters the microclimate around grape clusters, heightening the risk of disease outbreaks as Botrytis rot. This finding aligns with broader research on climatic impacts on viticulture [147,148]. Beyond climate, Fourment et al. [44] also identified non-climatic threats affecting viticultural systems, such as labor costs, grape pricing, wine stock restrictions, and market competitiveness, factors that amplify vineyard vulnerability. Their study provides a crucial perspective on the multifaceted challenges faced by Uruguayan winegrowers, reinforcing the need for integrated adaptation strategies in response to both climatic and non-climatic stressors.

Adaptation Strategies to Face Climate Change and Variability

In response to increasing climate-related challenges in South American viticulture, Fourment et al. [44] discussed various adaptation measures in Uruguayan viticulture, categorizing them according to their timing, either anticipatory or reactive, and their duration, tactical or strategic, following the frameworks proposed by Belliveau et al. [148] and Neethling et al. [149].

Short-term tactical measures address immediate climate variability, either in an anticipatory manner, such as vineyard irrigation to prevent heat stress [28,150], or reactively, like applying hydrogen cyanamide to standardize bud break in mild winters [151]. By contrast, long-term strategic measures, such as selecting resilient rootstocks [152,153] or planting at higher elevations to mitigate frost risk, require foresight and planning. Notably, variety selection is influenced not only by climate but by market competitiveness, making it a complex adaptation decision [148]. Fourment et al. [44] provided insights into the Uruguayan viticulturists’ adaptation strategies. Their interviews revealed key reactive adaptation measures, such as replacing concrete vineyard poles with metal ones to improve wind resistance and investing in better phytosanitary equipment to enhance vineyard health. A critical risk-reduction strategy identified in their research was vineyard distribution across multiple locations, a practice employed by 67% of the interviewed winegrowers. This spatial diversification was particularly effective in mitigating losses from extreme weather events, such as the January 2013 hailstorm, which severely impacted some vineyards but left others untouched. Additionally, rainfall variability near grape maturity can drastically affect grape quality, further underscoring the importance of vineyard dispersion.

Medium- and long-term adaptation efforts also involve vineyard systematization, particularly in terms of variety selection and production objectives. Their research highlights the significant risk of monoculture, as producers relying solely on Tannat for high quality wines face substantial losses if adverse conditions, like rot, occur. To counteract this, some growers maintain a portion of their vineyard with other varieties, like Merlot or Marselan, to diversify production and reduce financial risk. Others adjust vineyard management practices to optimize grape volumes for specific wine profiles [142], demonstrating that varietal and quality diversification is a crucial resilience strategy in both vineyards and wineries.

4. Conclusions

As the global wine industry faces mounting challenges from climate change, Latin America emerges not only as a traditional wine-producing region but as a dynamic laboratory for adaptation, innovation, and territorial revalorization. This review highlights the region’s diverse climatic zones, from the arid Andes to the humid tropics, and how its viticultural responses offer valuable insights for climate-resilient strategies worldwide. In Argentina, a leading wine-producing nation, the focus has shifted toward high-altitude viticulture, strategic relocation of vineyards, clonal and rootstock research, and the revival of Criolla varieties. Future research must continue to integrate phenological, physiological, and enological data to support adaptive breeding and site-specific management for small and large growers alike. Brazil, with its unique blend of temperate, subtropical, and tropical vitiviniculture, has led innovation in breeding programs through Embrapa, particularly with cultivars like ‘BRS Vitória’. Research priorities should include expanding disease-resistance programs, improving rootstock-scion compatibility under high temperatures, and promoting sustainable inputs in diverse production systems. Chile stands at a crossroads between its industrial viticulture and its rainfed, traditional systems. Southern expansion and heroic viticulture in Itata, Maule, and Malleco offer models of resilience, but require deeper investigation into water-use efficiency, microclimatic variability, and the valorization of old vine genetic material. In the south, bioclimatic zoning shows the potential for high-quality sparkling and cool-climate wines, calling for varietal trials and frost-risk modelling. The Dominican Republic, although still emerging, presents an opportunity to develop tropical viticulture suited to specific microclimates like Neiba. Research should focus on cultivar adaptation, fungal disease management, and the development of local enological practices. Similarly, Haiti’s viticulture, rooted in traditional practices, faces ecological and infrastructural limitations. Future work should combine climate-adaptive management with cultural preservation and local empowerment. Uruguay, characterized by small and medium-scale viticulture with strong cultural roots, has pioneered terroir-based research integrating climatic typology and vine performance. The country now leads in modeling terroir expression under changing climates. Future work must deepen these lines, incorporating socio-economic adaptation frameworks and participatory innovation to support producers facing market and climatic volatility. Overall, Latin America’s viticultural future depends on its ability to blend scientific innovation with territorial identity, community knowledge, and adaptive governance. Strengthening regional research, breeding programs, and support for heritage cultivars can position Latin America as a leader in sustainable, climate-resilient viticulture globally.