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Article

The Effects of Essential Oils from Coriander Seed, Tarragon and Orange Peel on Lipid Production by Yarrowia lipolytica Strains

by
Özlem Yılmaz
1,*,
Güzin Kaban
2 and
Mükerrem Kaya
2
1
Department of Hotel, Restaurant and Catering, Social Sciences Vocational School, Bayburt University, Bayburt 69000, Türkiye
2
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Atatürk University, Erzurum 25240, Türkiye
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Fermentation 2025, 11(10), 597; https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation11100597
Submission received: 10 September 2025 / Revised: 11 October 2025 / Accepted: 16 October 2025 / Published: 18 October 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Yarrowia lipolytica: A Beneficial Yeast as a Biofactory for Biotechnological Applications: 3rd Edition)
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Abstract

The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of different concentrations (0.15, 0.30, and 0.45 mL/L) of essential oils from coriander seeds (Coriandrum sativum), tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus), and orange peels (Citrus sinensis) on biomass, lipid content, and lipid yield of the strains Yarrowia lipolytica Y-1094, Y. lipolytica YB 423, and Y. lipolytica IFP29. The fatty acid composition of the oils produced by the strains was also determined. The highest biomass (5.38 ± 1.80 g/L) and lipid production (0.98 ± 0.42 g/L) were observed in the presence of Y. lipolytica IFP29 and Y. lipolytica YB 423, respectively. The lipid yield showed the highest value at the level of 0.45 mL/L in the presence of the Y. lipolytica Y-1094 strain. The correlation heat map results indicate that 0.45 mL of tarragon affected biomass and lipid content more than the other essential oils used. Y. lipolytica Y-1094 produced higher levels in terms of myristic acid and palmitic acid in all three essential oil sources than the other strains. The highest oleic acid level of all strains was determined in coriander seed essential oil, and the lowest in tarragon essential oil. The oleic acid level of Y. lipolytica Y-1094 was lower than that of the other two strains in all essential oils. Regarding linoleic acid, the oil level did not have a significant effect in the presence of tarragon and orange peel.

1. Introduction

Fatty acids and their derivatives are important for many industrial sectors, especially food, chemistry and energy. However, oil production from plants is limited by factors such as season, temperature, geopolitical location and arable land availability, and this affects lipids both quantitatively and qualitatively. Therefore, the importance of microbial oil production has increased [1]. Microorganisms which can store more than 20% of dry cell weight as lipid are defined as oleaginous microorganisms. Single cell oils, in other words microbial oils, are produced by some oleaginous microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast, mold and microalgae [2]. Many oleaginous yeasts accumulate lipids at up to 40% of their biomass, while under nutrient-limiting conditions they can accumulate oil at up to 70% of their biomass [3].
Yarrowia lipolytica, which is among the oleaginous yeasts, is generally accepted as safe (GRAS) by the Food and Drug Administration, and is one of the most widely studied non-conventional yeasts due to its bio-technological properties. Organic acids, enzymes (proteases, lipases, and phosphatases), emulsifiers and surfactants, single-cell protein and oil, and polyols are the main products obtained from Y. lipolytica [4]. Agricultural and industrial wastes and by-products are used as carbon sources for the production of low-cost single-cell oil from this source [5,6,7,8].
Studies on the use of different oil sources in microbial oil production are prominent [5,9,10,11,12,13,14]. On the other hand, there are some studies investigating the effects of essential oils on the biomass, lipid production and lipid yield of eukaryotic cells [15,16,17,18,19,20]; however, the diversity of microorganism strains and the variety and concentrations of essential oils used were limited. In the last few years, no studies have directly examined the effects of essential oils on the microbial biomass, lipid content, and fatty acid composition of oleaginous yeasts. Furthermore, to our knowledge, no previous study has compared the effects of different concentrations of essential oil on the biomass, lipid yield, and fatty acid profiles of different Yarrowia lipolytica strains. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate how varying levels of coriander seed, tarragon and orange peel essential oils affect biomass, lipid content and fatty acid profiles of three Y. lipolytica strains.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Material

Three different Yarrowia lipolytica strains (Y. lipolytica Y-1094, ATCC 8662) Y. lipolytica YB 423, ATCC 18942) and Y. lipolytica IFP29, ATCC 20460) were obtained from the American culture collection. Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) seed and tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus) plants with a geographical indication were purchased from the local markets in Erzurum and Bayburt (Türkiye), respectively. The orange peels were obtained by manually peeling the fruits purchased from the Western Mediterranean Agricultural Research Institute (Antalya, Türkiye).

2.2. The Extraction of Essential Oils and the Composition of Growth Medium

Coriander seeds, tarragon and orange peels dried in laboratory conditions, were used in the trials after grinding. Clevenger apparatus was used to obtain essential oil from dried materials. A 100 g sample of dried material was placed into a 2 L round-bottomed flask of a Clevenger-type hydro-distillation unit, and 1000 mL of deionized water was added. Distillation was carried out for 3 h from the time the water in the flask began to boil. At the end of the distillation, the essential oil accumulated on the water surface was collected. The obtained essential oils were dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate, sterilized using a 0.45 µm pore-size sterile filter, and stored at −80 °C until use [19].
In the essential oils obtained from orange (Jaffa orange) peel, coriander (Coriandrum sativum) and tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus), the highest essential oil content was identified as that of limonene, linalool and estragol, respectively [21]. Obtained essential oils were added to the growth medium given below in different proportions.
Composition of the growth medium (g/L) was as follows: glucose 30.00; yeast extract 0.50; KH2PO4 7.00; Na2HPO4 2.50; CaCl2·2H2O 0.15; (NH4)2SO4 0.50; MnSO4·H2O 0.06; ZnSO4·7H2O 0.02; FeCl3·6H2O 0.15; MgSO4·7H2O 1.50. Essential oils were added to the culture medium at three different levels (0.15, 0.30 and 0.45 mL/L). Experiments were performed in a 250 mL conical flask containing 50 mL growth medium. Each 50 mL culture was inoculated with 1 mL of 24 h pre-culture and incubated at 28 °C, 180 rpm (JSR JSSI-100, JS Research Inc., Seoul, Republic of Korea) for 5 days.

2.3. The Determination of Biomass

After incubation, cells were separated from the medium by centrifuging at 16,000× g for 15 min at 10 °C (Thermo Fisher, MR23, Berlin, Germany). The cells were washed twice with distilled water and dried to a constant dry weight at 95 °C. Biomass (g/L) was calculated as the dry cell weight produced in liters of liquid medium [19].

2.4. The Determination of Lipid Production and Lipid Yield

Lipid extraction from dry biomass was performed as by Enshaeieh et al. [22]. Lipid content was expressed as g/L of medium, and lipid yield as % of dry cell weight [5].

2.5. The Determination of Fatty Acid Composition

For the preparation of methyl esters from oil, 1.5 mL of 2 M methanolic NaOH was added to the obtained oil and treated with nitrogen gas, and incubated at 80 °C for 1 h for saponification. After cooling, 2 mL of boron trifluoride–methanol complex was added and treated again with nitrogen gas and kept at 80 °C for 30 min to achieve methylation. For extraction, 1 mL of hexane, 1 mL of double distilled water and 1 mL of hexane were added to the samples respectively and homogenized each time and then centrifuged at 3000× g for 5 min at 4 °C. Finally, the upper hexane layer was collected, dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate and transferred to vials and treated with nitrogen gas for the last time [23].
The fatty acid composition of the obtained fatty acid methyl esters was determined using GC/FID (Agilent Technologies 6890N, Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA). CPSIL 88 (100 m × 250 μm × 0.20 μm) was used as column in the system and helium was used as carrier gas with a flow rate of 1 mL/min. The oven temperature was held at 100 °C for 3 min and then increased by 3 °C per min to 200 °C. After holding at this temperature for 15 min, it was increased by 3 °C per min to 225 °C and held at this temperature again for 10 min. A fatty acid methyl ester mixture (Supelco, 4-7801 FAME-mix, Bellefonte, PA, USA) was used as standard and the results are given as %.

2.6. Statistical Analysis

The experiment used a completely randomized design with three replicates per treatment. Data were analysed by one-way ANOVA; significant effects and interactions were followed by Duncan’s multiple range test (p < 0.05). For ANOVA analyses, significant differences were considered at p < 0.05, while highly significant differences were evaluated at p < 0.01. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 20 statistical software. In addition, to determine relationship between factors and biomass, lipid content and lipid yield, and between the factors and fatty acid composition, the correlation heat map was carried out using ChiPlot [24].

3. Results and Discussion

Table 1 presents the effects of strain (S), essential oil level (EOL) and essential oil source (EOS) on biomass, lipid content and yield. The highest mean biomass value belonged to Y. lipolytica IFP29 with 5.38 ± 1.80 g/L. There was no difference between the biomass amounts of Y. lipolytica Y-1094 and Y. lipolytica YB 423. The lowest mean biomass value was 3.68 ± 1.95 g/L at the level of 0.45 mL/L. The highest mean biomass value was 5.69 ± 0.94 g/L when the essential oil was added as 0.15 mL/L. However, this value did not differ statistically from the level of 0.30 mL/L. In terms of essential oil source, the highest mean biomass value was determined as 5.65 ± 0.80 g/L under the cultivation conditions where orange peel essential oil was added. The lowest average value was found to be 3.92 ± 2.07 g/L in the case where the tarragon essential oil was added to the medium (Table 1). In addition, the interaction of EOS × EOL had a very significant effect on the biomass amount (Table 1). As can be seen in Figure 1, the largest reduction in the amount of biomass was carried out in the case where the tarragon essential oil was added to 0.45 mL/L. The amount of biomass decreased when the level of tarragon and coriander seed essential oils added to medium was increased from 0.15 mL/L to 0.45 mL/L. The increase in orange peel essential oil level did not cause a significant difference to the amount of biomass. The lowest biomass value was found when tarragon essential oil was added at a level of 0.45 mL/L. Similarly, Bozinou et al. [20] showed that yeasts showed lower sensitivity to essential oil obtained from the peel of the Greek citrus hybrid Citrus sinensis cv New Hall-Citrus aurantium than Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. It was also reported that low concentrations (e.g., 0.3 mL/L) did not have a significant negative effect on the final biomass concentration of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae LMBF Y-16, while high concentrations (e.g., 1.2 mL/L) significantly inhibited microbial growth. In contrast, Papanikolaou et al. [18] demonstrated that the essential oil derived from orange peel has a non-negligible preventive effect on the biomass amount of Y. lipolytica ACA-DC 50109. On the other hand, Chatzifragkou et al. [19] stated that the biomass amount of Y. lipolytica LFMB 20 decreased with increasing concentration of essential oil of oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) and the accumulation of cellular lipid showed a slight increase. Previous studies report antifungal activity of tarragon [25,26] and coriander [27,28] essential oils at varying levels.
The strain factor had a significant effect on lipid content (g/L) (p < 0.01) (Table 1). The strain of Y. lipolytica YB 423 was statistically different from the Y. lipolytica Y-1094 and Y. lipolytica IFP29 strains and had the highest average value (0.98 ± 0.42 g/L). When the effect of essential oil sources on the content of lipid (g/L) was examined, it was determined that the lowest average lipid content was 0.53 ± 0.31 g/L in the case of the addition of the tarragon. The differences were found between the levels of essential oils used in the study, and the highest average value was also determined to be at the level of 0.15 mL/L of essential oil (Table 1). On the other hand, the coriander essential oil with a level of 0.15 mL/L had a higher lipid content than the other levels. In the presence of tarragon, 0.45 mL/L showed the lowest amount of lipid. At all levels where the orange peel essential oil was added to the medium, the amount of produced lipid provided close results (Figure 2). Chatzifragkou et al. [19] reported that the Y. lipolytica LFMB 20 generally does not produce more than 1.2 g/L of lipid in the case of the presence or absence of oregano essential oil. In another study, it was determined that the lipid content was 16.45 g/L with 61.67% (g/g) yield in the medium containing 30 g/L glucose and 10 g linseed oil in the presence of Y. lipolytica YB 423-12. [5]
Regarding mean lipid yield, the highest value was observed in the Y. lipolytica YB 423 strain. However, the mean value of this strain did not statistically differ from the mean value of the Y. lipolytica Y-1094 strain. On the other hand, essential oil source had no significant effect on lipid yield (Table 1). Likewise, the lipid yield was not statistically different at all levels when essential oils are added to the medium. However, interaction of S × EOS had no significant effect on the lipid yield. Similarly, interaction of EOL × EOS was also insignificant (Table 1). The results of S × EOL interaction, which was found to have a very significant effect on lipid yield (p < 0.05) are presented in Figure 3. According to this, the lipid yield showed the highest value at the level of 0.45 mL/L in the presence of the Y. lipolytica Y-1094 strain. The essential oil level had no effect on the lipid yield of the other two strains. In addition, no significant difference was observed in lipid yield between strains when the 0.45 mL/L level was applied. Considering the studies performed, it can be seen that the amount of biomass, production of lipid and lipid yield may vary depending on the strain and composition of the growth medium. However, studies show that Y. lipolytica strains produce low amounts of lipid when glucose is used as a carbon source [15,29,30] while, in fatty materials (saturated free fatty acids–oils–oil cakes), they produce significant amounts of lipids [5,31]. On the other hand, Y. lipolytica grown in bioreactors at low dilution rates with glycerol as carbon source achieves higher biomass and lipid yields [32,33].
The correlation heat map results show the relationship between the factors and biomass, lipid content, and lipid yield (Figure 4). Biomass and lipid content were in the same cluster and exhibited a close correlation. However, lipid yield was placed in a separate cluster. Two main clusters were formed between the groups. The groups containing 0.45 mL of tarragon (T) were in the same cluster for all three Yarrowia strains. This cluster also included the group containing 0.45 mL of coriander-containing strain Y. lipolytica YB 423. Biomass and lipid content values in these groups were lower than in the other groups. The use of 0.45 mL of tarragon reduced biomass and lipid content. However, in the Y. lipolytica Y-1094/Tarragon/0.45 mL group, while the amount of biomass was low, lipid yield was high. These results indicate that 0.45 mL of tarragon affected biomass and lipid content more than the other essential oils used. In the other cluster, the coriander and orange peel with 0.15 mL groups of Y. lipolytica YB 423 were located in a subcluster, differing from the other groups. Lipid content and lipid yield, in particular, were higher in these groups than in the other groups (Figure 4). These results indicate that the amount and type of essential oils used cause differences depending on the strain used.
The effects of essential oil sources and their different levels on the fatty acid composition of lipid produced by Y. lipolytica strains is shown in Table 2. The essential oil type and strain factors had a very significant (p < 0.01) effect on myristic acid (C14:0), palmitic (C16:0), palmitoleic (C16:1), oleic (C18:1n9c) and linoleic (C18:2n6c). On the other hand, the essential oil level showed a very significant effect on determined fatty acids, except for stearic acid (C18:0) (Table 2).
The interactions of S × EOS on myristic, palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, oleic and linoleic acids are given in Figure 5A–F. When the profile of saturated fatty acids was examined individually, Y. lipolytica Y-1094 produced higher levels in terms of myristic acid in all three essential oil sources than the other strains, and the average value was found to be the highest, especially in the tarragon essential oil medium (Figure 5A). A similar result was also observed for palmitic acid (Figure 5B). For stearic acid, Y. lipolytica IFP29 was unaffected by the oil source, while Y. lipolytica Y-1094 and Y. lipolytica YB 423 gave higher values in the presence of tarragon than the other groups. As with myristic and palmitic acid, Y. lipolytica Y-1094 yielded the highest mean value in the presence of tarragon (Figure 5C). In a study investigating the effect of seven different essential oils on the fatty acid composition of lipids produced by Rhodosporidium toruloides, it was reported that all essential oils used in this study, except thyme essential oil, increased the stearic acid content of the lipids obtained, while thyme essential oil decreased the palmitic acid content by approximately 21% compared to the control group [34].
Different effects were observed with unsaturated fatty acids. The lowest mean palmitoleic acid level was determined in tarragon essential oil medium of Y. lipolytica Y-1094 and Y. lipolytica YB 423 strains, while the highest levels were determined in orange peel essential oil medium for the same strains. In addition, the palmitoleic acid content of Y. lipolytica IFP29 was statistically insignificant in all essential oil sources, and was higher in tarragon and coriander seed oil media than the other two strains (Figure 5D). The highest mean oleic acid level of all strains was determined in coriander seed essential oil, and the lowest in tarragon essential oil. The oleic acid level of Y. lipolytica Y-1094 was lower than that of the other two strains in all essential oils (Figure 5E). Indeed, different essential oils can have opposing effects on the same species of microorganism, even at the same concentration. In a study on Rhodosporidium toruloides, Uprety and Rakshit [34] reported that clove essential oil reduced oleic acid by 12.03%, while thyme essential oil increased it by 11.06% at the same concentration.
In terms of linoleic acid, the highest mean value of Y. lipolytica YB 423 was obtained in tarragon essential oil. In contrast, the lowest mean linoleic acid value for Y. lipolytica YB 423 and Y. lipolytica IFP29 was detected in coriander seed essential oil. While the linoleic acid value of Y. lipolytica Y-1094 was statistically similar in all essential oils, it was lower than the other two strains in tarragon and orange peel essential oils (Figure 5F). Similarly, effects depending on the type of microorganism and the source of essential oil have been observed in the literature. In a study conducted by Uprety and Rakshit [34] on Cryptococcus curvatus, it was determined that increasing concentrations of orange essential oil decreased the ΣC18/ΣC16 and C18:1/C18:0 ratios and increased the C18:2/C18:1 ratio.
Another study in which Cunninghamella echinulata was grown with different orange essential oil concentrations revealed that increasing essential oil concentrations specifically promoted the accumulation of oleic acid, while suppressing the levels of linoleic, γ-linolenic, and stearic acids. These changes were explained by the fact that orange essential oil increased the activity of elongase and Δ9 desaturase enzymes, while inhibiting the activity of Δ6 desaturase and Δ12 desaturase enzymes [35]. In a study in which Cymbopogon citratus essential oil was added to the growth medium of Aspergillus niger, it was reported that the use of the essential oil resulted in a significant decrease in the proportion of saturated fatty acids in total lipids compared to the control group, while increasing the amount of unsaturated fatty acids, particularly oleic and erucic acids. However, linoleic, linolenic, and erucic acids appeared only in cells treated with essential oil. In experiments in which essential oils were added, the concentration of oleic and palmitic acids increased over time, while the concentration of gamma-linolenic and linoleic acids decreased over time [36]. Similarly, when T. elegans was grown on medium containing thyme essential oil, the concentration of oleic and palmitic acids in the resulting oil composition increased over time, while the concentration of gamma-linolenic and linoleic acids decreased over time [37]. These results suggest that the effects of essential oils on the fatty acid profiles of oil-producing microorganisms are species-specific.
The interactions of S × EOL on myristic, palmitoleic, stearic, oleic and linoleic acids are given in Figure 6A–E. Increasing the essential oil level added to the medium from 0.15 mL/L to 0.45 mL/L caused an increase in the myristic acid value of Y. lipolytica YB 423. However, the highest myristic acid value was detected in Y. lipolytica Y-1094 at all essential oil levels (Figure 6A). The highest mean stearic acid value was also detected in Y. lipolytica Y-1094 at all essential oil levels. However, the stearic acid production of the strains was not dependent on the essential oil usage level. Furthermore, Y. lipolytica IFP29 gave higher mean values at all levels. This strain was not affected by the usage level (Figure 6B). On the other hand, as the level of essential oil added to the medium increased, the palmitoleic acid content of Y. lipolytica Y-1094 decreased. Similarly, when the essential oil level increased from 0.15 to 0.45 mL/L, the palmitoleic acid value of Y. lipolytica YB 423 decreased. The palmitoleic acid value of Y. lipolytica IFP29 was not affected by the increase in essential oil level (Figure 6C). The strains did not show any change in oleic acid levels depending on the oil concentration. Y. lipolytica Y-1094 gave a lower average oleic acid value at all three oil concentration levels (Figure 6D). On the other hand, oil level did not have a significant effect on the linoleic acid content of Y. lipolytica YB 423 and Y. lipolytica IFP29. The lowest average linoleic acid value was found in Y. lipolytica Y-1094 at 0.15 mL/L of essential oil level, and linoleic acid value decreased at the 0.45 mL/L of essential oil (Figure 6E). Similarly, in the study conducted by Chatzifragkou et al. [19], it was reported that the use of thyme (Origanum vulgare L.) essential oil above 0.15 mL/L increased the palmitic acid (C16:0) production capacity of Y. lipolytica, while decreasing the amounts of linoleic (C18:2) and palmitoleic (C16:1) acids. In addition, Papanikolaou et al. [18] reported that medium-chain saturated fatty acids increased in the fatty acid composition of Y. lipolytica in the presence of orange peel essential oil and this increase was dependent on the essential oil concentration. It has also been determined in other studies that different types and concentrations of essential oils significantly alter the ΣC18/ΣC16, C18:1/C18:0 and C18:2/C18:1 ratios and oleic, linoleic and stearic acid levels in microorganisms [34,36,37]. These findings suggest that different concentrations of essential oils can direct the saturated and unsaturated fatty acid profiles depending on the microorganism strain.
The effects of bioactive compounds in various plant extracts on the fatty acid profile of oil-producing microorganisms have also been studied [34,38,39,40,41,42]. The selection of microorganism type and essential oil source/composition is critical to achieve the targeted fatty acid profile, as essential oils and their components can be used to manipulate the fatty acid profiles of oil-producing microorganisms. It has been reported that the use of limonene and orange essential oil has similar effects on the fatty acid composition of lipids produced by R. toruloides ATCC 10788, and that increasing their levels in the medium gradually increases the values of C16:0 and C18:0 and overall saturated fatty acids, while decreasing the amounts of C18:1 and 18:2 [34]. Moreton [38] studied the effect of cyclopropene fatty acids on the lipid profiles of Candida sp. 107, Trichosporon cutaneum and Rhodosporidium toruloides and reported that these fatty acids showed a concentration-dependent effect, and as the concentration increased, the amount of stearic acid increased with the decrease in Δ9-desaturase activity, whereas oleic acid decreased. Active components of sesame oil were added to the Mortierella alpine growth medium and it was reported that these compounds limited the activity of Δ5 desaturase involved in polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis and caused a decrease in γ-linolenic acid (C18:3) levels and an increase in arachidonic acid (C20:4) levels in the lipid composition [39]. Chaturvedi et al. [41] used banana peel as a carbon source and aqueous Prosopis cineraria extract as a source of aromatic components to increase the quantity and quality of oil obtained from Rhodotorula mucilaginosa and combined two approaches for oil-producing microorganisms, i.e., the use of organic waste as a carbon source and the manipulation of fatty acid composition by aromatics. Furthermore, Singh et al. [42] showed that derived aromatics obtained from distillate aromatic waste biomass can support oil production by microorganisms and have a manipulation effect on fatty acid profiles.
The interactions of EOS × EOL on myristic, palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, oleic and linoleic acids are given in Figure 7A–F. Myristic acid production levels of strains may vary depending on the level and source. The 0.45 mL/L level of tarragon essential oil yielded the best results. It was observed that the increase in myristic acid levels in the presence of tarragon and coriander seed oils was concentration-dependent. However, increasing the level of orange peel essential oil did not cause a significant difference in myristic acid levels (Figure 7A). There was no statistically significant difference between the average palmitic acid values when using essential oils at 0.15 mL/L. When comparing the 0.45 mL/L levels of essential oils, the highest values were found in tarragon essential oil (Figure 7B). In terms of stearic acid, the use of tarragon essential oil at 0.30 and 0.45 mL/L levels yielded higher values than other essential oil sources (Figure 7C). Palmitoleic acid levels decreased with increasing tarragon essential oil levels. The amount of palmitoleic acid at 0.30 and 0.45 mL/L levels of orange peel essential oil was higher than that determined at the same levels of the other two essential oil sources (Figure 7D). The oleic acid levels determined for tarragon and coriander seed essential oils at 0.15 mL/L were not statistically different from each other and were higher than those determined at the same level for orange peel essential oil. The average oleic acid levels determined for tarragon essential oil at 0.30 and 0.45 mL/L were lower than those determined at the same levels for the other two essential oil sources (Figure 7E). Regarding linoleic acid, the oil level did not have a significant effect in the presence of tarragon and orange peel. However, in the presence of coriander, the amount of linoleic acid decreased at both 0.30 mL/L and 0.45 mL/L. The lowest amount of linoleic acid was determined at 0.30 and 0.45 mL/L of coriander seed essential oil (Figure 7F). It has been reported that oils added as carbon sources to the growth medium of Y. lipolytica affect cellular lipid content and fatty acid composition, and that the fatty acid composition of the oil produced by the yeast is similar to the composition of the oil added to the growth medium [5]. However, this phenomenon is not related to the fact that the addition of essential oils to the growth medium causes significant changes in the cellular fatty acids of Y. lipolytica [18,19]. Furthermore, most studies on oleaginous microorganisms emphasize the regulation of fatty acid chain length and degree of unsaturation through metabolic engineering, biotechnology, and process interventions, rather than achieving a fatty acid profile parallel to the natural composition of the oil added to the growth medium [43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51]. Studies show that essential oil type and concentration play a critical role in directing microbial fatty acid profiles by influencing intracellular biosynthesis depending on the microorganism type and strain, leading to changes in fatty acid chain length and degree of unsaturation [18,19,34,36].
Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids determined in the correlation analysis were separated into two separate clusters and showed close correlation among themselves. There are two main clusters within the groups (Figure 8). The first cluster contains Y. lipolytica Y-1094/Tarragon/0.45 and 0.30 mL, and Y. lipolytica YB 423/Tarragon/0.45 mL, and it was observed that saturated fatty acids had higher values than unsaturated fatty acids. The opposite was observed for all groups in the other cluster. According to these results, tarragon used, in particular, causes changes in the fatty acid profile depending on the ratio used. The highest oleic acid values were observed in the Y. lipolytica YB 423/coriander/0.45 and 0.30 mL groups, and in the Y. lipolytica Y-1094/coriander/0.45 mL group, which showed close correlations. Therefore, it was concluded that fatty acid composition was affected by other factors, depending on the strain.

4. Conclusions

Oleaginous yeasts are considered ideal microorganisms for sustainable lipid production due to their metabolic properties, high lipid yields, and ability to utilize diverse carbon sources. These characteristics include rapid growth, resistance to stress conditions, and metabolic adaptability to changing environmental conditions. In this study, three different essential oils were added to the growth medium of three different Yarrowia lipolytica strains at increasing concentrations. Biomass and lipid production were affected by both the type and concentration of the essential oils. The fatty acid profiles of microorganism varied depending on the strain, the type of essential oil, and its concentration. While essential oil concentration did not have a significant effect on stearic acid levels, the highest levels of myristic and palmitic acids were observed in strain Y-1094, and the highest levels of linoleic acid were detected in strain YB 423 at a concentration of 0.45 mL/L of tarragon essential oil. In conclusion, the addition of essential oils to the growth medium of oleaginous microorganisms such as Y. lipolytica enables the manipulation of fatty acid profiles, allowing for the targeted production of specific saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Essential oils could serve as a complementary approach to metabolic engineering for tailoring fatty acid profiles in Y. lipolytica.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Ö.Y. and M.K.; methodology, Ö.Y., G.K. and M.K.; validation, Ö.Y. and G.K.; formal analysis, Ö.Y. and G.K.; investigation, M.K. and Ö.Y.; resources, Ö.Y. and M.K.; data curation, Ö.Y. and M.K.; writing—original draft preparation, Ö.Y.; writing—review and editing, G.K. and M.K.; visualization, Ö.Y. and G.K.; supervision, M.K.; project administration, M.K.; funding acquisition, M.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was funded by The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Türkiye (TÜBİTAK) (Project number: 116O756).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Fermentation 11 00597 g001
Figure 1. The effect of EOS × EOL interaction on biomass amount (g/L). (a,b: Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between the essential oil levels in same essential oil source. A–C: Different capital letters indicate significant differences between the essential oil sources in same essential oil level).
Figure 1. The effect of EOS × EOL interaction on biomass amount (g/L). (a,b: Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between the essential oil levels in same essential oil source. A–C: Different capital letters indicate significant differences between the essential oil sources in same essential oil level).
Fermentation 11 00597 g001
Fermentation 11 00597 g002
Figure 2. The effect of EOS × EOL interaction on lipid content (g/L). (a,b: Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between the essential oil levels in same essential oil source. A–C: Different capital letters indicate significant differences between the essential oil sources in same essential oil level).
Figure 2. The effect of EOS × EOL interaction on lipid content (g/L). (a,b: Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between the essential oil levels in same essential oil source. A–C: Different capital letters indicate significant differences between the essential oil sources in same essential oil level).
Fermentation 11 00597 g002
Fermentation 11 00597 g003
Figure 3. The effect of S × EOL interaction on lipid yield. (a,b: Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between the essential oil levels in same strain. A,B: Different capital letters indicate significant differences between the strains in same essential oil level).
Figure 3. The effect of S × EOL interaction on lipid yield. (a,b: Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between the essential oil levels in same strain. A,B: Different capital letters indicate significant differences between the strains in same essential oil level).
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Fermentation 11 00597 g004
Figure 4. The cluster analysis of correlation heat map showing the relationship between the factors and biomass, lipid content and lipid yield (Y1: Y. lipolytica Y-1094, Y2: Y. lipolytica YB 423, Y3: Y. lipolytica IFP29, C: coriander seed, T: tarragon, O: orange peel, essential oil level: 0.15, 0.30 and 0.45 mL/L).
Figure 4. The cluster analysis of correlation heat map showing the relationship between the factors and biomass, lipid content and lipid yield (Y1: Y. lipolytica Y-1094, Y2: Y. lipolytica YB 423, Y3: Y. lipolytica IFP29, C: coriander seed, T: tarragon, O: orange peel, essential oil level: 0.15, 0.30 and 0.45 mL/L).
Fermentation 11 00597 g004
Fermentation 11 00597 g005
Figure 5. The effects of interactions of S × EOS on myristic (A), palmitic (B), stearic (C), palmitoleic (D), oleic (E) and linoleic (F) acids. (a–c: Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between the essential oil sources in the same strain. A–C: Different capital letters indicate significant differences between the different strains in the same essential oil source).
Figure 5. The effects of interactions of S × EOS on myristic (A), palmitic (B), stearic (C), palmitoleic (D), oleic (E) and linoleic (F) acids. (a–c: Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between the essential oil sources in the same strain. A–C: Different capital letters indicate significant differences between the different strains in the same essential oil source).
Fermentation 11 00597 g005
Fermentation 11 00597 g006
Figure 6. The effects of interactions of S × EOL on myristic (A), stearic (B), palmitoleic (C), oleic (D) and linoleic (E) acids. (a,b: Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between the different essential oil levels in the same strain. A,B: Different capital letters indicate significant differences between the different strains in the same essential oil level).
Figure 6. The effects of interactions of S × EOL on myristic (A), stearic (B), palmitoleic (C), oleic (D) and linoleic (E) acids. (a,b: Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between the different essential oil levels in the same strain. A,B: Different capital letters indicate significant differences between the different strains in the same essential oil level).
Fermentation 11 00597 g006
Fermentation 11 00597 g007
Figure 7. The effects of interactions of EOS × EOL on myristic (A), palmitic (B), stearic (C), palmitoleic (D), oleic (E) and linoleic (F) acids. (a,b: Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between the different essential oil levels in the same essential oil source. A–C: Different capital letters indicate significant differences between the different essential oil sources in the same essential oil level).
Figure 7. The effects of interactions of EOS × EOL on myristic (A), palmitic (B), stearic (C), palmitoleic (D), oleic (E) and linoleic (F) acids. (a,b: Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between the different essential oil levels in the same essential oil source. A–C: Different capital letters indicate significant differences between the different essential oil sources in the same essential oil level).
Fermentation 11 00597 g007
Fermentation 11 00597 g008
Figure 8. The cluster analysis of correlation heat map showing the relationship between the factors and fatty acid composition (Y1: Y. lipolytica Y-1094, Y2: Y. lipolytica YB 423, Y3: Y. lipolytica IFP29, C: coriander seed, T: tarragon, O: orange peel, essential oil level: 0.15, 0.30 and 0.45 mL/L.
Figure 8. The cluster analysis of correlation heat map showing the relationship between the factors and fatty acid composition (Y1: Y. lipolytica Y-1094, Y2: Y. lipolytica YB 423, Y3: Y. lipolytica IFP29, C: coriander seed, T: tarragon, O: orange peel, essential oil level: 0.15, 0.30 and 0.45 mL/L.
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Table 1. The effects of Y. lipolytica strain, essential oil level and essential oil source on the biomass, lipid content and lipid yield (mean ± standard error).
Table 1. The effects of Y. lipolytica strain, essential oil level and essential oil source on the biomass, lipid content and lipid yield (mean ± standard error).
FactorsBiomass (g/L)Lipid Content (g/L)Lipid Yield (%)
Strain (S)   
Y. lipolytica Y-10944.71 ± 0.18 b0.72 ± 0.04 b17.76 ± 0.91 ab
Y. lipolytica YB 4234.52 ± 0.18 b0.98 ± 0.04 a21.18 ± 0.91 a
Y. lipolytica IFP295.38 ± 0.18 a0.78 ± 0.04 b14.13 ± 0.91 b
Significance ******
Essential oil level (EOL)   
0.15 mL/L5.69 ± 0.15 a0.98 ± 0.04 a17.28 ± 0.95 a
0.30 mL/L5.24 ± 0.15 a0.83 ± 0.04 b16.04 ± 0.95 a
0.45 mL/L3.68 ± 0.15 b0.67 ± 0.04 c19.75 ± 0.95 a
Significance****NS
Essential oil source (EOS)   
Tarragon3.92 ± 0.16 c0.53 ± 0.04 b16.08 ± 0.96 a
Coriander seed5.04 ± 0.16 b0.92 ± 0.04 a18.27 ± 0.96 a
Orange peel5.65 ± 0.16 a1.04 ± 0.04 a18.71 ± 0.96 a
Significance****NS
Interactions   
S × EOLNSNS*
S × EOSNSNSNS
EOS × EOL***NS
S × EOS × EOLNSNS*
The averages marked with the same letter in the same column and same section are not different from each other (p > 0.05). * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, NS: not significant.
Table 2. The effects of essential oil sources and essential oil levels on the fatty acid composition of lipid produced by Y. lipolytica strains (mean ± standard error).
Table 2. The effects of essential oil sources and essential oil levels on the fatty acid composition of lipid produced by Y. lipolytica strains (mean ± standard error).
FactorsMyristic Acid C14:0Palmitic Acid C16:0Palmitoleic Acid C16:1Stearic Acid C18:0Oleic Acid C18:1n9cLinoleic Acid C18:2n6c
Strain (S)      
Y. lipolytica Y-10949.59 ± 0.52 a24.48 ± 0.71 a7.75 ± 0.27 b10.81 ± 0.43 a43.14 ± 1.45 b4.21 ± 0.31 c
Y. lipolytica YB 4233.25 ± 0.52 b13.28 ± 0.71 b6.56 ± 0.27 c6.73 ± 0.43 b62.74 ± 1.45 a7.44 ± 0.31 a
Y. lipolytica IFP292.82 ± 0.52 b12.52 ± 0.71 b10.58 ± 0.27 a4.89 ± 0.43 c62.57 ± 1.45 a6.59 ± 0.31 b
Significance ************
Essential oil source (EOS)      
Tarragon8.77 ± 0.61 a22.21 ± 0.83 a7.16 ± 0.31 c10.69 ± 0.44 a43.74 ± 1.43 c7.40 ± 0.29 a
Coriander seed3.31 ± 0.61 b12.69 ± 0.83 c8.24 ± 0.31 b5.37 ± 0.44 b66.48 ± 1.43 a3.89 ± 0.29 b
Orange peel3.57 ± 0.61 b15.32 ± 0.83 b9.49 ± 0.31 a6.38 ± 0.44 b58.23 ± 1.43 b6.95 ± 0.29 a
Significance************
Essential oil level (EOL)      
0.15 mL/L3.59 ± 0.64 b15.68 ± 0.93 b9.69 ± 0.31 a7.61 ± 0.51 a56.73 ± 1.77 b6.63 ± 0.34 a
0.30 mL/L4.42 ± 0.64 b15.91 ± 0.93 b7.98 ± 0.31 b7.05 ± 0.51 a58.63 ± 1.77 a5.99 ± 0.34 ab
0.45 mL/L7.65 ± 0.64 a18.62 ± 0.93 a7.22 ± 0.31 b7.77 ± 0.51 a53.10 ± 1.77 c5.61 ± 0.34 b
Significance******NS***
Interaction      
S × EOS************
S × EOL**NS*******
EOS × EOL*********
The averages marked with the same letter in the same column and same section are not different from each other (p > 0.05). * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, NS: not significant.
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Yılmaz, Ö.; Kaban, G.; Kaya, M. The Effects of Essential Oils from Coriander Seed, Tarragon and Orange Peel on Lipid Production by Yarrowia lipolytica Strains. Fermentation 2025, 11, 597. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation11100597

AMA Style

Yılmaz Ö, Kaban G, Kaya M. The Effects of Essential Oils from Coriander Seed, Tarragon and Orange Peel on Lipid Production by Yarrowia lipolytica Strains. Fermentation. 2025; 11(10):597. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation11100597

Chicago/Turabian Style

Yılmaz, Özlem, Güzin Kaban, and Mükerrem Kaya. 2025. "The Effects of Essential Oils from Coriander Seed, Tarragon and Orange Peel on Lipid Production by Yarrowia lipolytica Strains" Fermentation 11, no. 10: 597. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation11100597

APA Style

Yılmaz, Ö., Kaban, G., & Kaya, M. (2025). The Effects of Essential Oils from Coriander Seed, Tarragon and Orange Peel on Lipid Production by Yarrowia lipolytica Strains. Fermentation, 11(10), 597. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation11100597

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