Small Ruminant Production in Tanzania, Uganda, and Ethiopia: A Systematic Review of Constraints and Potential Solutions
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Constraints to Small Ruminant Production
3.2. Farmer-Reported Ranking of Constraints
3.3. Disease
3.4. Potential Solutions to the Challenges Identified
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Robinson, T.P.; Thornton, P.; Franceschini, G.; Kruska, R.L.; Chiozza, F.; Notenbaert, A.; Cecchi, G.; Herrero, M.; Epprecht, M.; Fritz, S.; et al. Global Livestock Production Systems; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI): Rome, Italy, 2011; p. 152. [Google Scholar]
- FAO. Mapping Supply and Demand for Animal-Source Foods to 2030; Animal Prodduction Health Working Paper; No. 2; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Wiggins, S.; Kirsten, J.; Llambí, L. The Future of Small Farms. World Dev. 2010, 38, 1341–1348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Herrero, M.; Thornton, P.K.; Notenbaert, A.; Msangi, S.; Wood, S.; Kruska, R.; Dixon, J.; Bossio, D.; van de Steeg, J.; Freeman, H.A.; et al. Drivers of Change in Crop–Livestock Systems and Their Potential Impacts on Agro-Ecosystems Services and Human Wellbeing to 2030: A Study Commissioned by the CGIAR Systemwide Livestock Programme; ILRI: Nairobi, Kenya, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Walpole, M.; Smith, J.; Rosser, A.; Brown, C.; Schulte-Herbruggen, B.; Booth, H.; Sassen, M.; Mapendembe, A.; Fancourt, M.; Bieri, M.; et al. Smallholders, Food Security, and the Environment; International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD): Rome, Italy, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). Commodites and Development Report 2015: Smallholder Farmers and Sustainable Commodity Development; United Nations Conference on Trade and Development: Geneva, Switzerland, 2015; Available online: https://unctad.org/webflyer/commodities-and-development-report-2015 (accessed on 1 November 2019).
- Samberg, L.H.; Gerber, J.S.; Ramankutty, N.; Herrero, M.; West, P.C. Subnational Distribution of Average Farm Size and Smallholder Contributions to Global Food Production. Environ. Res. Lett. 2016, 11, 124010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lie, H.; Rich, K.M.; Kurwijila, L.R.; Jervell, A.M. Improving Smallholder Livelihoods through Local Value Chain Development: A Case Study of Goat Milk Yogurt in Tanzania? Int. Food Agribus. Manag. Rev. 2012, 15, 55–86. [Google Scholar]
- Hassen, A.S.; Tesfaye, Y. Sheep and Goat Production Objectives in Pastoral and Agro-Pastoral Production Systems in Chifra District of Afar, Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2014, 46, 1467–1474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Umeta, G.; Duguma, M.; Hundesa, F.; Muleta, M. Participatory Analysis of Problems Limiting Goat Production at Selected Districts of East Showa Zone, Ethiopia. Afr. J. Agric. Res. 2011, 6, 5701–5714. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Haile, A.; Gizaw, S.; Getachew, T.; Mueller, J.P.; Amer, P.; Rekik, M.; Rischkowsky, B. Community-Based Breeding Programmes Are a Viable Solution for Ethiopian Small Ruminant Genetic Improvement but Require Public and Private Investments. J. Anim. Breed. Genet. 2019, 2018, 319–328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Michael, S.; Mbwambo, N.; Mruttu, H.; Maziku Dotto, M.; Ndomba, C.; da Silva, M.; Makusaro, F.; Nandonde, S.; Crispin, J.; Shapiro, B.; et al. Tanzania Livestock Master Plan; ILRI: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- UBOS. Statistical Abstract. 2018. Available online: https://www.ubos.org/wp-content/uploads/publications/05_2019STATISTICAL_ABSTRACT_2018.pdf (accessed on 1 November 2019).
- Zoetis. African Livestock Productivity and Health Advancement in Sub-Saharan Africa. 2019. Available online: https://ng.zoetis.com/_locale-assets/alpha_initiative_brochure_feb_2019.pdf (accessed on 1 December 2019).
- Kassahun, A.; Snyman, H.A.; Smit, G.N. Impact of Rangeland Degradation on the Pastoral Production Systems, Livelihoods and Perceptions of the Somali Pastoralists in Eastern Ethiopia. J. Arid Environ. 2008, 72, 1265–1281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Robinson, T.P.; Wint, G.R.W.; Conchedda, G.; Van Boeckel, T.P.; Ercoli, V.; Palamara, E.; Cinardi, G.; D’Aietti, L.; Hay, S.I.; Gilbert, M. Mapping the Global Distribution of Livestock. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e96084. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Selemani, I.S. Ecological Implications of Bush Encroachment on Foraging Behavior of Dairy Cows and Goats at SUA Farm, Morogoro, Tanzania. Trop. Grassl. Forrajes Trop. 2018, 6, 169–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wilhite, D.A.; Sivakumar, M.V.K.; Pulwarty, R. Managing Drought Risk in a Changing Climate: The Role of National Drought Policy. Weather Clim. Extrem. 2014, 3, 4–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ocaido, M.; Muwazi, R.T.; Opuda, J.A. Disease Incidence in Ranch and Pastoral Livestock Herds around Lake Mburo National Park, in South Western Uganda. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2009, 41, 1299–1308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Molla, B.; Delil, F. Mapping of Major Diseases and Devising Prevention and Control Regimen to Common Diseases in Cattle and Shoats in Dassenech District of South Omo Zone, South-Western Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2014, 47, 45–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Welay, G.M.; Tedla, D.G.; Teklu, G.G.; Weldearegay, S.K.; Shibeshi, M.B.; Kidane, H.H.; Gebrezgiabher, B.B.; Abraha, T.H. A Preliminary Survey of Major Diseases of Ruminants and Management Practices in Western Tigray Province, Northern Ethiopia. BMC Vet. Res. 2018, 14, 293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kocho, T.; Abebe, G.; Tegegne, A.; Gebremedhin, B. Marketing Value-Chain of Smallholder Sheep and Goats in Crop-Livestock Mixed Farming System of Alaba, Southern Ethiopia. Small Rumin. Res. 2011, 96, 101–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blench, R.; Chapman, R.; Slaymaker, T. A Study of the Role of Livestock in Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Perry, B.; Grace, D. The Impacts of Livestock Diseases and Their Control on Growth and Development Processes That Are Pro-Poor. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 2009, 364, 2643–2655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Moher, D.; Liberati, A.; Tetzlaff, J.; Altman, D.G. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement All Use Subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions REPORTING Items Preferred for Systematic Reviews Reporting Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement. Br. Med. J. 2009, 339, 332–336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bett, R.C.; Kosgey, I.S.; Kahi, A.K.; Peters, K.J. Analysis of Production Objectives and Breeding Practices of Dairy Goats in Kenya. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2009, 41, 307–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zonabend König, E.; Mirkena, T.; Strandberg, E.; Audho, J.; Ojango, J.; Malmfors, B.; Okeyo, A.M.; Philipsson, J. Participatory Definition of Breeding Objectives for Sheep Breeds under Pastoral Systems—The Case of Red Maasai and Dorper Sheep in Kenya. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2016, 48, 9–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Onzima, R.B.; Gizaw, S.; Kugonza, D.R.; van Arendonk, J.A.M.; Kanis, E. Production System and Participatory Identification of Breeding Objective Traits for Indigenous Goat Breeds of Uganda. Small Rumin. Res. 2018, 163, 51–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing; R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria, 2019; Available online: Https://Www.R-Project.Org/ (accessed on 1 December 2019).
- RStudio Team. RStudio: Integrated Development for R; RStudio Inc.: Boston, MA, USA, 2019; Available online: Http://www.Rstudio.Com/ (accessed on 1 December 2019).
- De Vries, J. Goats for the Poor: Some Keys to Successful Promotion of Goat Production among the Poor. Small Rumin. Res. 2008, 77, 221–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mayberry, D.; Ash, A.; Prestwidge, D.; Herrero, M. Closing Yield Gaps in Smallholder Goat Production Systems in Ethiopia and India. Livest. Sci. 2018, 214, 238–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kenfo, H.; Mekasha, Y.; Tadesse, Y. A Study on Sheep Farming Practices in Relation to Future Production Strategies in Bensa District of Southern Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2018, 50, 865–874. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Tolera, A. Production Situation and Some Productivity and Physical Characters of Traditionally Managed Sheep and Goats in Kochore District, Southern Ethiopia. J. Appl. Anim. Res. 1998, 13, 49–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Solomon, T.B.; Snyman, H.A.; Smit, G.N. Cattle-Rangeland Management Practices and Perceptions of Pastoralists towards Rangeland Degradation in the Borana Zone of Southern Ethiopia. J. Environ. Manag. 2007, 82, 481–494. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kebede, T.; Haile, A.; Dadi, H. Smallholder Goat Breeding and Flock Management Practices in the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2012, 44, 999–1006. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tadesse, D.; Urge, M.; Animut, G.; Mekasha, Y. Perceptions of Households on Purpose of Keeping, Trait Preference, and Production Constraints for Selected Goat Types in Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2014, 46, 363–370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tadesse, E.; Negesse, T.; Abebe, G. Sheep Production and Marketing System in Southern Ethiopia: The Case of Awassazuria District. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2015, 47, 1417–1425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tesfahun, B.; Kebede, K.; Effa, K. Traditional Goat Husbandry Practice under Pastoral Systems in South Omo Zone, Southern Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2017, 49, 625–632. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nziku, Z.C.; Kifaro, G.C.; Eik, L.O.; Steine, T.; Ådnøy, T. Reasons for Keeping Dairy Goats in Tanzania, and Possible Goals for a Sustainable Breeding Program. Anim. Prod. Sci. 2017, 57, 338–346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mwebe, R.; Ejobi, F.; Laker, C.D. Assessment of the Economic Viability of Goat Management Systems in Goma Sub County and Mukono Town Council in Mukono District, Uganda. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2011, 43, 825–831. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nampanzira, D.K.; Kabasa, J.D.; Nalule, S.A.; Nakalembe, I.; Tabuti, J.R.S. Characterization of the Goat Feeding System among Rural Small Holder Farmers in the Semi-Arid Regions of Uganda. Springerplus 2015, 4, 188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Assenga, J.A.; Matemba, L.E.; Malakalinga, J.J.; Muller, S.K.; Kazwala, R.R. Quantitative Analysis of Risk Factors Associated with Brucellosis in Livestock in the Katavi-Rukwa Ecosystem, Tanzania. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2016, 48, 303–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Herzog, C.M.; de Glanville, W.A.; Willett, B.J.; Kibona, T.J.; Cattadori, I.M.; Kapur, V.; Hudson, P.J.; Buza, J.; Cleaveland, S.; Bjørnstad, O.N. Pastoral Production Is Associated with Increased Peste Des Petits Ruminants Seroprevalence in Northern Tanzania across Sheep, Goats and Cattle. Epidemiol. Infect. 2019, 147, e242. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Casey-Bryars, M.; Reeve, R.; Bastola, U.; Knowles, N.J.; Auty, H.; Bachanek-Bankowska, K.; Fowler, V.L.; Fyumagwa, R.; Kazwala, R.; Kibona, T.; et al. Waves of Endemic Foot-and-Mouth Disease in Eastern Africa Suggest Feasibility of Proactive Vaccination Approaches. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2018, 2, 1449–1457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Berhanu, W.; Negussie, H.; Alemu, S.; Mazengia, H. Assessment on Major Factors That Cause Skin Rejection at Modjo Export Tannery, Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2011, 43, 989–993. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Seyoum, Z.; Tadesse, T.; Addisu, A. Ectoparasites Prevalence in Small Ruminants in and around Sekela, Amhara Regional State, Northwest Ethiopia. J. Vet. Med. 2015, 2015, 216085. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tedla, M.; Gebreselassie, M. Estimating the Proportion of Clinically Diagnosed Infectious and Non-Infectious Animal Diseases in Ganta Afeshum Woreda, Eastern Tigray Zone, Ethiopia. BMC Res. Notes 2018, 11, 29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sertse, T.; Wossene, A. Effect of Ectoparasites on Quality of Pickled Skins and Their Impact on the Tanning Industries in Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia. Small Rumin. Res. 2007, 69, 55–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mekuria, S.; Zerihun, A.; Gebre-Egziabher, B.; Tibbo, M. Participatory Investigation of Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP) in Goats in the Hammer and Benna-Tsemay Districts of Southern Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2008, 40, 571–582. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Woldemeskel, M.; Mersha, G. Study on Caprine and Ovine Dermatophilosis in Wollo, Northeast Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2010, 42, 41–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bekele, J.; Tariku, M.; Abebe, R. External Parasite Infestations in Small Ruminants in Wolmera District of Oromiya Region, Central Ethiopia. J. Anim. Vet. Adv. 2011, 10, 518–523. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sissay, M.M.; Uggla, A.; Waller, P.J. Prevalence and Seasonal Incidence of Nematode Parasites and Fluke Infections of Sheep and Goats in Eastern Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2007, 39, 521–531. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sissay, M.M.; Uggla, A.; Waller, P.J. Prevalence and Seasonal Incidence of Larval and Adult Cestode Infections of Sheep and Goats in Eastern Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2008, 40, 387–394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abebe, R.; Gebreyohannes, M.; Mekuria, S.; Abunna, F.; Regassa, A. Gastrointestinal Nematode Infections in Small Ruminants under the Traditional Husbandry System during the Dry Season in Southern Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2010, 42, 1111–1117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tufa, S.S.; Sölkner, J.; Mészáros, G.; Haile, A.; Mwacharo, J.; Khayatzadeh, N.; Wurzinger, M. Indigenous Knowledge, Practices and Preferences in Control of Gastrointestinal Nematodes in Bonga and Horro Sheep of Ethiopia. Small Rumin. Res. 2019, 175, 110–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Molla, B. The Health Performance of Imported Boer Goat (Capra hircus) and Their Crosses with Woito-Guji Goat Breeds in South Omo Zone, South-Western Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2016, 48, 855–861. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gebre, K.T.; Yfter, K.A.; Teweldemedhn, T.G.; Gebremariam, T. Participatory Definition of Trait Preferences and Breeding Practices of Goats in Aba’ala, Afar Region: As Input for Designing Genetic Improvement Program. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2019, 52, 41–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Addis, S.A.; Desalegn, A.Y. Comparative Seroepidemiological Study of Brucellosis in Sheep under Smallholder Farming and Governmental Breeding Ranches of Central and North East Ethiopia. J. Vet. Med. 2018, 2018, 7239156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Asmare, K.; Megersa, B.; Denbarga, Y.; Abebe, G.; Taye, A.; Bekele, J.; Bekele, T.; Gelaye, E.; Zewdu, E.; Agonafir, A.; et al. A Study on Seroprevalence of Caprine Brucellosis under Three Livestock Production Systems in Southern and Central Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2012, 45, 555–560. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bekele, M.; Mohammed, H.; Tefera, M.; Tolosa, T. Small Ruminant Brucellosis and Community Perception in Jijiga District, Somali Regional State, Eastern Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2011, 43, 893–898. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Megersa, B.; Biffa, D.; Abunna, F.; Regassa, A.; Godfroid, J.; Skjerve, E. Seroprevalence of Brucellosis and Its Contribution to Abortion in Cattle, Camel, and Goat Kept under Pastoral Management in Borana, Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2011, 43, 651–656. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Megersa, B.; Tadesse, C.; Abunna, F.; Regassa, A.; Mekibib, B.; Debela, E. Occurrence of Mastitis and Associated Risk Factors in Lactating Goats under Pastoral Management in Borana, Southern Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2010, 42, 1249–1255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gebremedhin, E.Z.; Agonafir, A.; Tessema, T.S.; Tilahun, G.; Medhin, G.; Vitale, M.; Di Marco, V. Some Risk Factors for Reproductive Failures and Contribution of Toxoplasma Gondii Infection in Sheep and Goats of Central Ethiopia: A Cross-Sectional Study. Res. Vet. Sci. 2013, 95, 894–900. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ayalew, W.; King, J.M.; Bruns, E.; Rischkowsky, B. Economic Evaluation of Smallholder Subsistence Livestock Production: Lessons from an Ethiopian Goat Development Program. Ecol. Econ. 2003, 45, 473–485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ayalew, W.; Rischkowsky, B.; King, J.M.; Bruns, E. Crossbreds Did Not Generate More Net Benefits than Indigenous Goats in Ethiopian Smallholdings. Agric. Syst. 2003, 76, 1137–1156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Admassu, B.; Nega, S.; Haile, T.; Abera, B.; Hussein, A.; Catley, A. Impact Assessment of a Community-Based Animal Health Project in Dollo Ado and Dollo Bay Districts, Southern Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2005, 37, 33–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amare, T.; Goshu, G.; Tamir, B. Flock Composition, Breeding Strategies and Farmers’ Traits of Interest Evaluation of Wollo Highland Sheep and Their F 1 Crosses. J. Anim. Sci. Technol. 2018, 60, 14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Eshete, G.; Marino, J.; Sillero-Zubiri, C. Ethiopian Wolves Conflict with Pastoralists in Small Afroalpine Relicts. Afr. J. Ecol. 2018, 56, 368–374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mariner, J.C.; Roeder, P.L. Use of Participatory Epidemiology in Studies of the Persistence of Lineage 2 Rinderpest Virus in East Africa. Vet. Rec. 2003, 152, 641–647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bett, B.; Jost, C.; Allport, R.; Mariner, J. Using Participatory Epidemiological Techniques to Estimate the Relative Incidence and Impact on Livelihoods of Livestock Diseases amongst Nomadic Pastoralists in Turkana South District, Kenya. Prev. Vet. Med. 2009, 90, 194–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De la Fuente, J.; Contreras, M.; Kasaija, P.D.; Gortazar, C.; Ruiz-Fons, J.F.; Mateo, R.; Kabi, F. Towards a Multidisciplinary Approach to Improve Cattle Health and Production in Uganda. Vaccines 2019, 7, 165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Perera, B.M.A.O. A Coordinated Research Programme to Develop Methodologies for an Integrated Approach to Improve Small Scale Market Oriented Dairy Systems in Developing Countries. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2007, 39, 543–548. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schelling, E.; Greter, H.; Kessely, H.; Abakar, M.F.; Ngandolo, B.N.; Crump, L.; Bold, B.; Kasymbekov, J.; Baljinnyam, Z.; Fokou, G.; et al. Human and Animal Health Surveys among Pastoralists. Rev. Sci. Tech. 2016, 35, 659–671. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tefera, E. The Role of Dairy Cooperatives in Stimulating Innovation and Market Oriented Smallholders Development: The Case of Ada’a Dairy Cooperative, Central Ethiopia. Master’s Thesis, Haramaya University, Haramaya, Ethiopia, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Abdulsamad, A.; Gereffi, G. Dairy Value Chains in East Africa; International Growth Centre, Rwanda. 2016. Available online: https://gvcc.duke.edu/wp-content/uploads/09-30-2016_IGC_dairy_report_final.pdf (accessed on 1 December 2020).
- Tegegne, A.; Gebremedihin, B.; Hoekstra, D.; Alemayehu, N. Rural Urban Linkage in Market-Oriented Dairy Development in Ethiopia: Lessons from the Ada’a Dairy Cooperative. In Fostering New Development Pathways: Harnessing Rural-Urban Linkages (RUL) to Reduce Poverty and Improve Environment in the Highlands of Ethiopia, Proceedings of the a Planning Workshop on Thematic Research Area of the Global Mountain Program (GMP), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 29–30 August 2006; Global Mountain Programme: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Nishi, A.K.; Kumar, R. Dairy Farmers’ Satisfaction with Dairy Cooperative Societies: A Case Study. Indian Res. J. Ext. Educ. 2011, 11, 74–78. [Google Scholar]
- Liniger, H.; Mekdaschi Studer, R.; Hauert, C.; Gurtner, M. Sustainable Land Management in Practice—Guidelines and Best Practices for Sub-Saharan Africa; TerrAfrica; World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT); Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO): Rome, Italy, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Kassa, B.T.; Haile, A.G.; Essa, J.A. Determinants of Sheep Prices in the Highlands of Northeastern Ethiopia: Implication for Sheep Value Chain Development. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2011, 43, 1525–1533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abdilatif, M.H.; Onono, J.O.; Mutua, F.K. Analysis of Pastoralists’ Perception on Challenges and Opportunities for Sheep and Goat Production in Northern Kenya. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2018, 50, 1701–1710. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Constraint | Ethiopia | Tanzania | Uganda | Overall | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
a = 11, n = 18 | a = 1, n = 1 | a = 4, n = 6 | a = 16, n = 25 | |||||||||||||
I1 | I2 | I3 | Index | I1 | I2 | I3 | Index | I1 | I2 | I3 | Index | I1 | I2 | I3 | Index | |
Disease | 7 | 3 | 4 | 0.292 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 0.441 | 12 | 3 | 4 | 0.311 |
Feed shortage | 6 | 4 | 3 | 0.274 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 0.196 |
Drought | 1 | 5 | 3 | 0.151 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 1 | 5 | 3 | 0.108 |
Poor marketing | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0.057 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0.041 |
Access to water | 1 | 3 | 3 | 0.113 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.029 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 0.088 |
Access to grazing land | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0.057 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 1 | 4 | 0 | 0.324 | 3 | 4 | 0 | 0.115 |
Access to breeding stock | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0.028 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.029 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0.027 |
Access to veterinary services | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0.118 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0.027 |
Theft | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0.059 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0.014 |
Small flock size | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0.500 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0.020 |
Lack of record keeping | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0.333 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0.014 |
Lack of knowledge/education | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.167 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.007 |
Predators | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0.028 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.000 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0.059 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0.034 |
Spearman’s rho statistic | 0.939 (p = < 0.001) | −0.632 (p = 0.021) | 0.318 (p = 0.289) |
Disease | Ethiopia | Uganda | Tanzania | Total (% 1) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ectoparasites | 12 | 1 | 0 | 13 (24.1%) | [10,19,21,22,33,37,46,47,48,49,50,51,52] |
Gastrointestinal parasites | 9 | 2 | 0 | 11 (20.4%) | [19,28,33,34,37,38,48,53,54,55,56] |
Orf | 7 | 1 | 0 | 8 (14.8%) | [9,19,37,48,51,56,57,58] |
Sheep/goat pox | 7 | 0 | 0 | 7 (13.0%) | [9,10,20,21,33,46,58] |
Pasteurellosis | 6 | 0 | 0 | 6 (11.1%) | [9,10,20,33,37,48] |
CCPP | 5 | 1 | 0 | 6 (11.1%) | [9,10,19,20,33,50] |
Brucellosis | 5 | 0 | 1 | 6 (11.1%) | [20,43,59,60,61,62] |
PPR | 4 | 0 | 1 | 5 (9.3%) | [9,10,20,44,58] |
Coenurosis | 4 | 0 | 0 | 4 (7.4%) | [37,48,56,58] |
Diarrhoeal syndrome | 4 | 0 | 0 | 4 (7.4%) | [10,34,50,56] |
Anthrax | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 (5.6%) | [10,37,50] |
Pneumonia | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 (5.6%) | [34,37,57] |
Mastitis | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 (5.6%) | [10,21,63] |
Heartwater | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 (3.7%) | [19,57] |
Mineral deficiency | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 (3.7%) | [10,38] |
Listeriosis/circling disease | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 (1.9%) | [10] |
FMD | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 (1.9%) | [45] |
Foot rot | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 (1.9%) | [21] |
Nairobi sheep disease | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 (1.9%) | [20] |
Pyogenic infection | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 (1.9%) | [57] |
Toxoplasma gondii | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 (1.9%) | [64] |
Trypanosomiasis | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 (1.9%) | [21] |
Caseous lymphadenitis | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 (1.9%) | [57] |
Constraint | Solution | References |
---|---|---|
Disease | Effective control of ectoparasites using dips or sprays | [19,21,33,37,46,52] |
Sustainable control options for gastrointestinal parasites, for example, by using medicinal plants, and controlled use of anthelmintics to reduce the likelihood of resistance | [54,56] | |
Improve education for farmers and animal health workers on disease transmission and biosecurity | [31,43,47,54,58,61] | |
Regular epidemiological surveys of transboundary animal diseases should be performed with emphasis on the borders with neighbouring countries | [20] | |
Investment in the development of effective vaccines and the implementation of vaccination programmes, e.g., for brucellosis, FMD, sheep and goat pox, and heartwater | [21,45,51,57,60] | |
Access to veterinary services | Establish more localised veterinary centres for improved access to routine and preventative veterinary care | [10,32,41,44,58] |
Increase training for veterinary professionals including paravets | [9] | |
Improve the medicine supply system and control | [9] | |
Use of community-based animal health workers (CAHW) or participatory groups that are provided with in-depth training in animal health and husbandry, e.g., to perform vaccinations and treat minor ailments | [8,9,31,65,67] | |
Availability of quality feed | Education on managing and preserving pastures | [41] |
Increase grazing land availability through environmental rehabilitation and conservation of natural resources | [15] | |
Improve forage quality through controlled grazing, reseeding, the introduction of adaptable forage species and improved fodder grasses and legumes | [33,38,41] | |
Supplementation of small ruminant diets with leguminous tree foliage with a high crude protein content or other feed supplements such as noug seed cake | [32,34,42] | |
Drought | Early warning systems for drought using predictive models | [19] |
Movement of livestock in drought situations to minimise livestock pressure on natural resources | [35] | |
Breeding programmes | Rotation of breeding males/mixing of flocks to reduce inbreeding | [58] |
Community-based sustainable breeding improvement programmes with a focus on indigenous/hybrid stock and with input from farmers’ experience and their trait preferences | [10,11,37,41,58,65,66,68] | |
Availability of cheap, easily accessible, and simple-to-use reproductive technologies, including access to artificial insemination | [11] | |
Improved record keeping of breeding performance with input from all family members (see below) | [58] | |
Training on financial and technical management of breeding programs with support from national research institutions | [11] | |
Record keeping | Training of farmers on the importance of animal identification | [40] |
Improved supply of affordable ID materials | [40] | |
Improved easy-to-use record keeping databases, e.g., for use on a mobile phone | [11] | |
Availability of markets | Perform value chain analysis to understand marketing barriers such as access and smallholder participation | [10,22] |
Improvement of infrastructure and information distribution | [22] | |
Incentives for smallholder producers to invest in improving output of desirable animal products | [65] | |
Establishment of farmer groups, associations, or cooperatives (see above) to increase links and participation in formal markets and increased access to information | [10,11,22] | |
Predation | Use of shepherding should be promoted among smallholder farmers to reduce predation by wild animals | [69] |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Armson, B.; Ekiri, A.B.; Alafiatayo, R.; Cook, A.J. Small Ruminant Production in Tanzania, Uganda, and Ethiopia: A Systematic Review of Constraints and Potential Solutions. Vet. Sci. 2021, 8, 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci8010005
Armson B, Ekiri AB, Alafiatayo R, Cook AJ. Small Ruminant Production in Tanzania, Uganda, and Ethiopia: A Systematic Review of Constraints and Potential Solutions. Veterinary Sciences. 2021; 8(1):5. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci8010005
Chicago/Turabian StyleArmson, Bryony, Abel B. Ekiri, Ruth Alafiatayo, and Alasdair J. Cook. 2021. "Small Ruminant Production in Tanzania, Uganda, and Ethiopia: A Systematic Review of Constraints and Potential Solutions" Veterinary Sciences 8, no. 1: 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci8010005