Interspecies Relational Theory: A Framework for Compassionate Interspecies Interactions
Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Alignment with Maslow’s Hierarchy
3. Relationship Stages
3.1. Stage 1: Physical Trust, Communication Development, and Initial Engagement
3.1.1. Trust—Physical Safety
3.1.2. Associated Interactions with Physical Safety
3.1.3. Associated Interactions with Building Mutual Language and Communication
3.1.4. Additional Considerations for Physical Safety and Building Mutual Language and Communication
3.2. Stage 2: Psychological Safety, Ongoing Exchanges, and Rupture and Reconciliation
3.2.1. Trust—Psychological Safety (Subjective Sense of Safety)
3.2.2. Associated Interactions in Creating Exchanges, Rupture, and Reconciliation
3.2.3. Additional Considerations for Psychological Safety, Exchanges and Transactions, and Rupture and Repair
3.3. Stage 3: Deeper Relationship and Friendship
3.3.1. Associated Interactions Focused on Time, Proximity, and Seeking Safety
3.3.2. Additional Considerations for Developing Deeper Relationships
4. Additional Factors
4.1. Subjective Experiences
4.2. Hormonal Correlations
4.3. Framing Training and Veterinary Treatment in Interspecies Relational Theory
4.4. Animal-Assisted Services and the Animal–Human Bond
4.5. The Role of Choice
5. Related Theories
5.1. Attachment Theory
5.2. Relational Ecology
6. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Prato-Previde, E.; Basso Ricci, E.; Colombo, E.S. The Complexity of the Human–Animal Bond: Empathy, Attachment and Anthropomorphism in Human–Animal Relationships and Animal Hoarding. Animals 2022, 12, 2835. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Luke, K.L.; Rawluk, A.; McAdie, T. A New Approach to Horse Welfare Based on Systems Thinking. Anim. Welf. 2022, 31, 37–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chandler, C.K. Human-Animal Relational Theory: A Guide for Animal-Assisted Counseling. J. Creat. Ment. Health 2018, 13, 429–444. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tarazona, A.M.; Ceballos, M.C.; Broom, D.M. Human Relationships with Domestic and Other Animals: One Health, One Welfare, One Biology. Animals 2020, 10, 43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rault, J.L.; Waiblinger, S.; Boivin, X.; Hemsworth, P. The Power of a Positive Human–Animal Relationship for Animal Welfare. Front. Vet. Sci. 2020, 7, 590867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kieson, E.; Abramson, C.I. Equines as Tools vs. Partners: A Critical Look at the Uses and Beliefs Surrounding Horses in Equine Therapies and Argument for Mechanical Horses. J. Vet. Behav. Clin. Appl. Res. 2016, 15, 94–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hawkins, E.; Hawkins, R.; Dennis, M.; Williams, J.; Lawrie, S.M. Animal-Assisted Therapy, Including Animal-Assisted Activities and Resident Animals, for Improving Quality of Life in People with Stroke. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2019, 2019, CD013314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hatch, A. The View from All Fours: A Look at an Animal-Assisted Activity Program from the Animals’ Perspective. Anthrozoos 2007, 20, 37–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wijnen, B.; Martens, P. Animals in Animal-Assisted Services: Are They Volunteers or Professionals? Animals 2022, 12, 2564. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ng, Z.; Morse, L.; Albright, J.; Viera, A.; Souza, M. Describing the Use of Animals in Animal-Assisted Intervention Research. J. Appl. Anim. Welf. Sci. 2019, 22, 364–376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beck, A.M. The use of animals to benefit humans: Animal-assisted therapy. In Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy: Theoretical Foundations and Guidelines for Practice; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2000; pp. 21–40. [Google Scholar]
- Walsh, F. Human-Animal Bonds I: The Relational Significance of Companion Animals. Fam. Process 2009, 48, 462–480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Massen, J.J.M. Friendships in Animals. In Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2018; pp. 1–6. [Google Scholar]
- Wolter, R.; Stefanski, V.; Krueger, K. Parameters for the Analysis of Social Bonds in Horses. Animals 2018, 8, 191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ricci-Bonot, C.; Kiley-Worthington, M. The Roles of Individuals and Social Networking in a Small Group of Domestic Horses at Pasture. J. Anim. Health Behav. Sci. 2017, 1, 2. [Google Scholar]
- Silk, J. Animal Behaviour: Friendship Enhances Trust in Chimpanzees. Curr. Biol. 2016, 26, R76–R78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Koski, S.E. Reconciliation and Peace-Making: Insights from Studies on Nonhuman Animals. In Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences; Scott, R., Kosslyn, S., Eds.; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2015; ISBN 9781118900772. [Google Scholar]
- Cafazzo, S.; Marshall-Pescini, S.; Lazzaroni, M.; Virányi, Z.; Range, F. The Effect of Domestication on Post-Conflict Management: Wolves Reconcile While Dogs Avoid Each Other. R. Soc. Open Sci. 2018, 5, 171553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brosnan, S.F.; Bshary, R. Cooperation and Deception: From Evolution to Mechanisms. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 2010, 365, 2593–2598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Trivers, R.L. The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism. Q. Rev. Biol. 1970, 46, 35–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cooke, S. Betraying Animals. J. Ethics 2019, 23, 183–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mellor, D.J.; Beausoleil, N.J.; Littlewood, K.E.; McLean, A.N.; McGreevy, P.D.; Jones, B.; Wilkins, C. The 2020 Five Domains Model: Including Human–Animal Interactions in Assessments of Animal Welfare. Animals 2020, 10, 1870. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- García Pinillos, R.; Appleby, M.C.; Manteca, X.; Scott-Park, F.; Smith, C.; Velarde, A. One Welfare—A Platform for Improving Human and Animal Welfare. Vet. Rec. 2016, 179, 412–413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mota-Rojas, D.; Monsalve, S.; Lezama-García, K.; Mora-Medina, P.; Domínguez-Oliva, A.; Ramírez-Necoechea, R.; Garcia, R.D.C.M. Animal Abuse as an Indicator of Domestic Violence: One Health, One Welfare Approach. Animals 2022, 12, 977. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Griffin, K.E.; Arndt, S.S.; Vinke, C.M. The Adaptation of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs to the Hierarchy of Dogs’ Needs Using a Consensus Building Approach. Animals 2023, 13, 2620. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kenrick, D.T.; Griskevicius, V.; Neuberg, S.L.; Schaller, M. Renovating the Pyramid of Needs: Contemporary Extensions Built upon Ancient Foundations. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 2010, 5, 292–314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ghaleb, B.D.S. Towards A Dynamic Model of Human Needs: A Critical Analysis of Maslow’s Hierarchy. Int. J. Multidiscip. Approach Res. Sci. 2024, 2, 1028–1046. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schilke, O.; Reimann, M.; Cook, K.S. Trust in Social Relations. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 2021, 47, 239–259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mayer, R.C.; Davis, J.H.; David Schoorman, F. An Integrative Model of Organizational Trust. Acad. Manag. Rev. 1995, 20, 709–734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hancock, P.A.; Kessler, T.T.; Kaplan, A.D.; Stowers, K.; Brill, J.C.; Billings, D.R.; Schaefer, K.E.; Szalma, J.L. How and Why Humans Trust: A Meta-Analysis and Elaborated Model. Front. Psychol. 2023, 14, 1081086. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rault, J. Be Kind to Others: Prosocial Behaviours and Their Implications for Animal Welfare. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2019, 210, 113–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lewicki, R.J.; Bunker, B.B. Developing and Maintaining Trust in Work Relationships. In Trust in Organizations: Frontiers of Theory and Research; SAGE Publications, Inc.: New York, NY, USA, 1996; pp. 114–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McAllister, D.J.; Lewicki, R.J.; Chaturvedi, S. Trust in Developing Relationships: From Theory To Measurement. Acad. Manag. Proc. 2006, 2006, G1–G6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rotenberg, K.J. Interpersonal Trust During Childhood and Adolescence; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Forss, S.; Ciria, A.; Clark, F.; Galusca, C.; Harrison, D.; Lee, S. A Transdisciplinary View on Curiosity beyond Linguistic Humans: Animals, Infants, and Artificial Intelligence. Biol. Rev. 2024, 99, 979–998. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Searcy, W.A. Animal Communication, Cognition, and the Evolution of Language. Anim. Behav. 2019, 151, 203–205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brainard, M.S.; Fitch, W.T. Editorial Overview: Communication and Language: Animal Communication and Human Language. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2014, 28, v–viii. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Merkies, K.; Franzin, O. Enhanced Understanding of Horse–Human Interactions to Optimize Welfare. Animals 2021, 11, 1347. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mealand, B.; Rigg, S.; Shelton, L.; Wood, L. What Matters Most: The Horse’s Experience of the Experience. Anim. Behav. Welf. Cases 2025. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stankowich, T.; Blumstein, D.T. Fear in Animals: A Meta-Analysis and Review of Risk Assessment. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 2005, 272, 2627–2634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weiss, A.; Michels, C.; Burgmer, P.; Mussweiler, T.; Ockenfels, A.; Hofmann, W. Trust in Everyday Life. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 2021, 121, 95–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wess, L.; Böhm, A.; Schützinger, M.; Riemer, S.; Yee, J.R.; Affenzeller, N.; Arhant, C. Effect of Cooperative Care Training on Physiological Parameters and Compliance in Dogs Undergoing a Veterinary Examination—A Pilot Study. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2022, 250, 105615. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carroll, S.L.; Sykes, B.W.; Mills, P.C. Moving toward Fear-Free Husbandry and Veterinary Care for Horses. Animals 2022, 12, 2907. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Demaline, B. Fear in the Veterinary Clinic: History and Development of the Fear FreeSM Initiative. Conspec. Boreal. 2018, 4, 2. [Google Scholar]
- Rempel, J.K.; Holmes, J.G.; Zanna, M.P. Trust in Close Relationships. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 1985, 49, 95–112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Panksepp, J. Affective Consciousness: Core Emotional Feelings in Animals and Humans. Conscious. Cogn. 2005, 14, 30–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pelgrim, M.H.; Espinosa, J.; Tecwyn, E.C.; Marton, S.M.K.; Johnston, A.; Buchsbaum, D. What’s the Point? Domestic Dogs’ Sensitivity to the Accuracy of Human Informants. Anim. Cogn. 2021, 24, 281–297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bosmans, G.; Waters, T.E.A.; Finet, C.; de Winter, S.; Hermans, D. Trust Development as an Expectancy-Learning Process: Testing Contingency Effects. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0225934. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eubanks, C.F. Rupture Repair. Cogn. Behav. Pract. 2022, 29, 554–559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aragunde-Kohl, U.; Gómez-Galán, J.; Lázaro-Pérez, C.; Martínez-López, J.Á. Interaction and Emotional Connection with Pets: A Descriptive Analysis from Puerto Rico. Animals 2020, 10, 2136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shoib, S.; Hussaini, S.S.; Chandradasa, M.; Saeed, F.; Khan, T.; Swed, S.; Lengvenyte, A. Role of Pets and Animal Assisted Therapy in Suicide Prevention. Ann. Med. Surg. 2022, 80, 104153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amiot, C.E.; Bastian, B. What Is Beneficial in Our Relationships with Pets? Exploring the Psychological Factors Involved in Human–Pet Relations and Their Associations with Human Wellbeing. Anthrozoos 2023, 36, 579–603. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ujita, A.; Seekford, Z.; Kott, M.; Goncherenko, G.; Dias, N.W.; Feuerbacher, E.; Bergamasco, L.; Jacobs, L.; Eversole, D.E.; Negrão, J.A.; et al. Habituation Protocols Improve Behavioral and Physiological Responses of Beef Cattle Exposed to Students in an Animal Handling Class. Animals 2021, 11, 2159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lundberg, P.; Hartmann, E.; Roth, L.S.V. Does Training Style Affect the Human-Horse Relationship? Asking the Horse in a Separation–Reunion Experiment with the Owner and a Stranger. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2020, 233, 105144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cantor, M.; Farine, D.R.; Daura-Jorge, F.G. Foraging Synchrony Drives Resilience in Human-Dolphin Mutualism. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2023, 120, e2207739120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spottiswoode, C.N.; Begg, K.S.; Begg, C.M. Reciprocal Signaling in Honeyguide-Human Mutualism. Science 2016, 353, 387–389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McLean, A.N.; Christensen, J.W. The Application of Learning Theory in Horse Training. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2017, 190, 18–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Doherty, O.; McGreevy, P.D.; Pearson, G. The Importance of Learning Theory and Equitation Science to the Veterinarian. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2017, 190, 111–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Starling, M.J.; Branson, N.; Cody, D.; McGreevy, P.D. Conceptualising the Impact of Arousal and Affective State on Training Outcomes of Operant Conditioning. Animals 2013, 3, 300–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ninomiya, S.; Mitsumasu, T.; Aoyama, M.; Kusunose, R. A Note on the Effect of a Palatable Food Reward on Operant Conditioning in Horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2007, 108, 342–347. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beery, A.K.; Kaufer, D. Stress, Social Behavior, and Resilience: Insights from Rodents. Neurobiol. Stress. 2015, 1, 116–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Balliet, D.; Van Lange, P.A.M. Trust, Conflict, and Cooperation: A Meta-Analysis. Psychol. Bull. 2013, 139, 1090–1112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Steinbeis, N.; Engert, V.; Linz, R.; Singer, T. The Effects of Stress and Affiliation on Social Decision-Making: Investigating the Tend-and-Befriend Pattern. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2015, 62, 138–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cardoso, C.; Ellenbogen, M.A.; Serravalle, L.; Linnen, A.M. Stress-Induced Negative Mood Moderates the Relation between Oxytocin Administration and Trust: Evidence for the Tend-and-Befriend Response to Stress? Psychoneuroendocrinology 2013, 38, 2800–2804. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taylor, S.; Master, S. Social Responses to Stress: The Tend and Befriend Model. Handb. Stress Sci. Biol. Psychol. Health 2011, 101, 109. [Google Scholar]
- Taylor, S.E. Tend and Befriend Biobehavioral Bases of Affiliation Under Stress. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 2006, 15, 273–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kieson, E.; Goma, A.A.; Radi, M. Tend and Befriend in Horses: Partner Preferences, Lateralization, and Contextualization of Allogrooming in Two Socially Stable Herds of Quarter Horse Mares. Animals 2023, 13, 225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Komiya, A.; Ozono, H.; Watabe, M.; Miyamoto, Y.; Ohtsubo, Y.; Oishi, S. Socio-Ecological Hypothesis of Reconciliation: Cultural, Individual, and Situational Variations in Willingness to Accept Apology or Compensation. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 1761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Palagi, E.; Norscia, I. The Season for Peace: Reconciliation in a Despotic Species (Lemur catta). PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0142150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Waal, F.B.M. Primates-A Natural Heritage of Conflict Resolution. Science 2000, 289, 586–590. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Takaoka, A.; Maeda, T.; Hori, Y.; Fujita, K. Do Dogs Follow Behavioral Cues from an Unreliable Human? Anim. Cogn. 2015, 18, 475–483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Castro, A.C.V.; Fuchs, D.; Morello, G.M.; Pastur, S.; De Sousa, L.; Olsson, I.A.S. Does Training Method Matter? Evidence for the Negative Impact of Aversive-Based Methods on Companion Dog Welfare. PLoS ONE 2020, 15, e0225023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cavalli, C.; Dzik, V.; Carballo, F.; Bentosela, M. Post-Conflict Affiliative Behaviors Towards Humans in Domestic Dogs (Canis Familiaris). Int. J. Comp. Psychol. 2016, 29, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gingins, S.; Werminghausen, J.; Johnstone, R.A.; Grutter, A.S.; Bshary, R. Power and Temptation Cause Shifts between Exploitation and Cooperation in a Cleaner Wrasse Mutualism. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 2013, 280, 20130553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mills, S.C.; Côté, I.M. Crime and Punishment in a Roaming Cleanerfish. In Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences; Royal Society: London, UK, 2010; Volume 277, pp. 3617–3622. [Google Scholar]
- Bshary, R.; Grutter, A.S. Punishment and Partner Switching Cause Cooperative Behaviour in a Cleaning Mutualism. Biol. Lett. 2005, 1, 396–399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lansade, L.; Bonneau, C.; Parias, C.; Biau, S. Horse’s Emotional State and Rider Safety during Grooming Practices, a Field Study. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2019, 217, 43–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goodwin, D.; McGreevy, P.; Waran, N.; McLean, A. How Equitation Science Can Elucidate and Refine Horsemanship Techniques. Vet. J. 2009, 181, 5–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burgon, H.L. Horses, Mindfulness and the Natural Environment: Observations from a Qualitative Study with at-Risk Young People Participating in Therapeutic Horsemanship. Int. J. Psychosoc. Rehabil. 2014, 17, 51–67. [Google Scholar]
- Çetinkaya, E.; Kemer, G.; Bulgan, G.; Tezer, E. The Validity and Reliability Studies of Dyadic Trust Scale. Turk. Psychol. Couns. Guid. J. 2008, 3, 75–77. [Google Scholar]
- Parkinson, C.; Kleinbaum, A.M.; Wheatley, T. Similar Neural Responses Predict Friendship. Nat. Commun. 2018, 9, 332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rodrigues, M.A.; Yoon, S.O.; Clancy, K.B.H.; Stine-Morrow, E.A.L. What Are Friends for? The Impact of Friendship on Communicative Efficiency and Cortisol Response during Collaborative Problem Solving among Younger and Older Women. J. Women Aging 2021, 33, 411–427. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pezirkianidis, C.; Galanaki, E.; Raftopoulou, G.; Moraitou, D.; Stalikas, A. Adult Friendship and Wellbeing: A Systematic Review with Practical Implications. Front. Psychol. 2023, 14, 1059057. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bhattacharjee, D.; Flay, K.J.; McElligott, A.G. Personality Homophily Drives Female Friendships in a Feral Ungulate. iScience 2024, 27, 111419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Heitor, F.; do Mar Oom, M.; Vicente, L. Social Relationships in a Herd of Sorraia Horses. Part II. Factors Affecting Affiliative Relationships and Sexual Behaviours. Behav. Process. 2006, 73, 231–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burkhard, M.E.; Range, F.; Ward, S.J.; Robinson, L.M. Bonded by Nature: Humans Form Equally Strong and Reciprocated Bonds with Similar Raised Dogs and Wolves. Front. Psychol. 2023, 13, 1044940. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vitale, K.R.; Behnke, A.C.; Udell, M.A.R. Attachment Bonds between Domestic Cats and Humans. Curr. Biol. 2019, 29, R864–R865. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fine, A. The Human-Animal Bond Over the Lifespan: A Primer for Mental Health Professionals. In Clinician’s Guide to Treating Companion Animal Issues: Addressing Human-Animal Interaction; Kogan, L., Blazina, C., Eds.; Academic Press: New York, NY, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Melson, G.F. Child Development and the Human-Companion Animal Bond. Am. Behav. Sci. 2003, 47, 31–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Evans Robino, A. The Human-Animal Bond and Attachment in Animal-Assisted Interventions in Counseling. Ph.D. Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Hosey, G.; Melfi, V. Human-Animal Interactions, Relationships and Bonds: A Review and Analysis of the Literature. Int. J. Comp. Psychol. 2014, 27, 117–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kerepesi, A.; Doka, A.; Miklosi, A. Dogs and Their Human Companions: The Effect of Familiarity on Dog-Human Interactions. Behav. Process. 2015, 110, 27–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rehn, T.; Keeling, L.J. Measuring Dog-Owner Relationships: Crossing Boundaries between Animal Behaviour and Human Psychology. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2016, 183, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beck, A.M.; Katcher, A.H. Future Directions in Human-Animal Bond Research. Am. Behav. Sci. 2003, 47, 79–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sankey, C.; Richard-Yris, M.-A.; Leroy, H.; Henry, S.; Hausberger, M. Positive Interactions Lead to Lasting Positive Memories in Horses, Equus Caballus. Anim. Behav. 2010, 79, 869–875. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jardat, P.; Lansade, L. Cognition and the Human–Animal Relationship: A Review of the Sociocognitive Skills of Domestic Mammals toward Humans. Anim. Cogn. 2022, 25, 369–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Carter, C.S. The Oxytocin-Vasopressin Pathway in the Context of Love and Fear. Front. Endocrinol. 2017, 8, 356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kumsta, R.; Heinrichs, M. Oxytocin, Stress and Social Behavior: Neurogenetics of the Human Oxytocin System. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2013, 23, 11–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Froemke, R.C.; Young, L.J. Oxytocin, Neural Plasticity, and Social Behavior. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2021, 44, 359–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Heinrichs, M.; von Dawans, B.; Domes, G. Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and Human Social Behavior. Front. Neuroendocrinol. 2009, 30, 548–557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Donaldson, Z.R.; Young, L.J. Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and the Neurogenetics of Sociality. Science 2008, 322, 900–904. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Byrd-Craven, J.; Granger, D.A.; Auer, B.J. Stress Reactivity to Co-Rumination in Young Women’s Friendships: Cortisol, Alpha-Amylase, and Negative Affect Focus. J. Soc. Pers. Relat. 2016, 28, 469–487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Insel, T.R.; Winslow, J.T.; Wang, Z.; Young, L.J. Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and the Neuroendocrine Bass of Pair Bond Formation. In Vasopressin and Oxytocin: Molecular, Cellular, and Clinical Advances; Zingg, H.H., Bourque, C.W., Bichet, D.G., Eds.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 1998. [Google Scholar]
- Weinstein, T.A.R.; Bales, K.L.; Maninger, N.; Hostetler, C.M.; Capitanio, J.P. Early Involvement in Friendships Predicts Later Plasma Concentrations of Oxytocin and Vasopressin in Juvenile Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta). Front. Behav. Neurosci. 2014, 8, 295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burkhart, J.C.; Gupta, S.; Borrego, N.; Heilbronner, S.R.; Packer, C. Oxytocin Promotes Social Proximity and Decreases Vigilance in Groups of African Lions. iScience 2022, 25, 104049. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nagasawa, M.; Mitsui, S.; En, S.; Ohtani, N.; Ohta, M.; Sakuma, Y.; Onaka, T.; Mogi, K.; Kikusui, T. Oxytocin-Gaze Positive Loop and the Coevolution of Human-Dog Bonds. Science 2015, 348, 333–336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Höglin, A.; Van Poucke, E.; Katajamaa, R.; Jensen, P.; Theodorsson, E.; Roth, L.S.V. Long-Term Stress in Dogs Is Related to the Human–Dog Relationship and Personality Traits. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 8612. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McGreevy, P.D. The Advent of Equitation Science. Vet. J. 2007, 174, 492–500. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bachi, K. Application of Attachment Theory to Equine-Facilitated Psychotherapy. J. Contemp. Psychother. 2013, 43, 187–196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kroll, J. The Horse-Human Bond as Catalyst for Healing from Sexual or Domestic Abuse: Metaphors in Gillian Mears’ Foal’s Bread. Int. J. Pract. Theory Creat. Writ. 2020, 17, 50–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oliva, J.L.; Rault, J.-L.; Appleton, B.; Lill, A. Oxytocin Blocks Pet Dog (Canis Familiaris) Object Choice Task Performance Being Predicted by Owner-Perceived Intelligence and Owner Attachment. Pet. Behav. Sci. 2016, 1, 31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Payne, E.; DeAraugo, J.; Bennett, P.; McGreevy, P. Exploring the Existence and Potential Underpinnings of Dog-Human and Horse-Human Attachment Bonds. Behav. Process. 2016, 125, 114–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Littlewood, K.E.; Heslop, M.V.; Cobb, M.L. The Agency Domain and Behavioral Interactions: Assessing Positive Animal Welfare Using the Five Domains Model. Front. Vet. Sci. 2023, 10, 1284869. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olczak, K.; Nowicki, J.; Klocek, C. Motivation, Stress and Learning—Critical Characteristics That Influence the Horses’ Value and Training Method—A Review. Ann. Anim. Sci. 2016, 16, 641–652. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brajon, S.; Laforest, J.-P.; Schmitt, O.; Devillers, N. A Preliminary Study of the Effects of Individual Response to Challenge Tests and Stress Induced by Humans on Learning Performance of Weaned Piglets (Sus scrofa). Behav. Process. 2016, 129, 27–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bretherton, I. The Origins of Attachment Theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. Dev. Psychol. 1992, 28, 759–775. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Putney, J.M. Relational Ecology: A Theoretical Framework for Understanding the Human-Animal Bond. J. Sociol. Soc. Welf. 2013, 40, 57–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Kieson, E. Interspecies Relational Theory: A Framework for Compassionate Interspecies Interactions. Vet. Sci. 2025, 12, 586. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12060586
Kieson E. Interspecies Relational Theory: A Framework for Compassionate Interspecies Interactions. Veterinary Sciences. 2025; 12(6):586. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12060586
Chicago/Turabian StyleKieson, Emily. 2025. "Interspecies Relational Theory: A Framework for Compassionate Interspecies Interactions" Veterinary Sciences 12, no. 6: 586. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12060586
APA StyleKieson, E. (2025). Interspecies Relational Theory: A Framework for Compassionate Interspecies Interactions. Veterinary Sciences, 12(6), 586. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12060586