Next Article in Journal
Faecal Microbiota Transplantation as an Adjuvant Treatment for Extraintestinal Disorders: Translating Insights from Human Medicine to Veterinary Practice
Previous Article in Journal
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus-like Particles Produced in E. coli as Potential Antigens for a Novel Vaccine
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Veterinary Sciences
Volume 12
Issue 6
10.3390/vetsci12060540
vetsci-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Poisoning in Ruminants by Palicourea Aubl. Species (Rubiaceae) in Brazil: A Review

by
Flávia Aparecida de Oliveira Bezerra
,
Emily Rodrigues de Andrade
,
José Jailson Lima Bezerra
* and
Antonio Fernando Morais de Oliveira
Departamento de Botânica, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Av. da Engenharia, s/n, Cidade Universitária, Recife 50670-420, PE, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Vet. Sci. 2025, 12(6), 540; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12060540
Submission received: 8 May 2025 / Revised: 26 May 2025 / Accepted: 29 May 2025 / Published: 2 June 2025
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Simple Summary

When animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats eat certain plants from the genus Palicourea (a group of plants belonging to the Rubiaceae family), it can be deadly for them. This is a big problem for farmers in Brazil, as these plants cause serious illness and sudden death in their livestock. These plants often cause rapid death in animals after eating them, with “erva-de-rato” (Palicourea marcgravii) being particularly dangerous. Although cattle are most commonly affected, other ruminants, such as sheep and goats, can also be poisoned. The main culprit behind these toxic effects is a chemical called sodium monofluoroacetate, which is found naturally in these plants and is highly poisonous to animals. Although we have strong evidence from real-life cases showing how dangerous these plants are, some species have not been thoroughly tested in controlled scientific experiments. More research is needed to fully confirm their toxic potential. This will help us better understand the risks and develop strategies to prevent future livestock poisonings.

Abstract

Some species belonging to the genus Palicourea (Rubiaceae) are known to cause poisoning in production animals on Brazilian rural properties, being responsible for negatively affecting the livestock sector of the country. In this context, the present study aimed to review reports of spontaneous and experimental poisoning in ruminants caused by Palicourea species in different regions of Brazil. The documents were retrieved from various databases, covering the period from the first report published in 1986 to April 2025. Palicourea aeneofusca, Palicourea colorata (Syn. Psychotria colorata), Palicourea grandiflora, Palicourea hoffmannseggiana (Syn. Psychotria hoffmannseggiana), Palicourea marcgravii, and Palicourea violacea (Syn. Psychotria capitata) have been identified as causes of spontaneous poisoning in the following Brazilian states: Pernambuco, Sergipe, Paraíba, Goiás, São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Tocantins, Rondônia, and Distrito Federal. In general, Palicourea species cause sudden death in poisoned animals, especially P. marcgravii. Although cattle are more susceptible to poisoning by these plants, there are reports of cases in sheep, goats, and buffalo. Sodium monofluoroacetate occurs in Palicourea species and has been well reported as the main compound responsible for cases of poisoning in these animals. Despite epidemiological evidence of spontaneous poisoning cases in Brazil, the species P. colorata, P. grandiflora, P. hoffmannseggiana, and P. violacea have not yet been experimentally tested for their toxic potential, and studies of this nature are necessary.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Poisonous plants of interest to livestock are those that, when consumed by production animals in natural conditions, can cause health problems or even lead to death [1]. Plant poisoning is considered one of the main causes of disease in livestock worldwide [2]. The occurrence of plant poisoning in production animals is recognized as one of the main causes linked to losses in livestock farming in several regions of Brazil [3,4,5]. The diagnosis of these poisonings is generally based on clinical signs, histopathological examinations, and the identification of the toxic compound in the plant [6].
The Rubiaceae Juss. family is well known for grouping together poisonous species that interfere with cardiac function and can cause the death of farm animals [7,8,9]. This family is composed of more than 13,000 species distributed in approximately 611 genera, occupying a wide range of tropical and subtropical ecosystems [10]. The genus Palicourea Aubl. presents a great diversity of alkaloids derived from tryptamine and its precursor, tryptophan, as well as monoterpene indole alkaloids [11,12]. In general, alkaloids are identified as important biomarkers in plants that cause poisoning in production animals [13]. In Brazil, Palicourea species containing sodium monofluoroacetate (MFA) are associated with several outbreaks of poisoning, mainly in cattle, although they occasionally also affect sheep, buffalo, and goats [7].
Due to its wide distribution in pasture areas and negative impact on livestock, Palicourea marcgravii (A.St.-Hil.) is widely recognized as the main poisonous plant in Brazil [14,15]. This species causes rapid and fatal effects, such as tachycardia, muscle tremors, and sudden death in ruminants, making early clinical intervention difficult and worsening animal losses [16]. It is important to emphasize that the diagnosis of sudden death in ruminants is not simple and must be based on careful observation of the remaining animals for acute clinical signs and on the necropsy of the deceased animal [17]. MFA is the main toxic compound identified in P. marcgravii and is responsible for causing sudden deaths in production animals after consumption of the plant [2,16,18,19]. This potent toxin blocks ATP production via the Krebs cycle and causes acute toxicity in ruminants that consume MFA-containing plants [20].
In general, studies on poisonous plants are essential to diagnose possible outbreaks, reduce economic losses, and identify the compounds responsible for poisoning [21]. Obtaining this data is of fundamental importance to implement effective measures against poisonous plants that occur on farms and negatively affect the livestock sector. In this context, the present study aimed to review reports of spontaneous and experimental poisoning in ruminants caused by Palicourea species in different regions of Brazil.

2. Methodology

2.1. Databases

The documents were retrieved from the Google Scholar (https://scholar.google.com/ (accessed on 30 May 2025)), PubMed® (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ (accessed on 30 May 2025)), Scopus (http://www.scopus.com/ (accessed on 30 May 2025)), (https://www.sciencedirect.com/search (accessed on 30 May 2025)), SciELO (https://search.scielo.org/ (accessed on 30 May 2025)), and Web of Science (https://www.webofknowledge.com (accessed on 30 May 2025)) databases. The keywords used in the article searches were “Palicourea AND poisoning AND Brazil”, “Palicourea AND toxicity”, “Palicourea AND ruminants”, “Palicourea AND natural poisoning”, “Palicourea AND experimental poisoning”, “Palicourea AND spontaneous poisoning”, “Palicourea AND fluoroacetate”, and “Palicourea AND monofluoroacetate”.

2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

As inclusion criteria, articles with specific information on spontaneous and experimental poisonings in ruminants caused by Palicourea species in different regions of Brazil were selected from the first report published by Tokarnia et al. [22] in 1986 to April 2025. It is important to highlight that, during searches in the databases, some records published before 1986 on the topic were found; however, we were unable to retrieve the full text of these documents. Regarding the exclusion criteria, review articles, e-books, book chapters, undergraduate thesis, Master’ thesis, PhD thesis, and works published in technical or scientific events were excluded [5]. All scientific names of the species were checked on the platform The World Flora Online (WFO) Plant List (https://wfoplantlist.org/ (accessed on 30 May 2025)).

2.3. Data Screening and Information Categorization

A total of 46 scientific articles were selected from the databases (Figure 1). Subsequently, 19 of these studies were excluded because they presented information on the toxic potential of Palicourea in other animal species (non-ruminant), addressed only the chemical composition of the plants, or were review articles. Finally, 27 articles containing data on spontaneous poisonings (n = 14), experimental poisonings (n = 12), and both cases of poisonings in ruminants (n = 1) caused by Palicourea species were considered and included in the present study (Table S1—Supplementary Material). The collected data were presented in tables and figures when necessary. The results were described in three categories: (1) “Spontaneous poisoning by Palicourea species”, (2) “Experimental poisoning by Palicourea species”, and (3) “Toxicity of sodium monofluoroacetate”.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

Studies that address information on spontaneous poisonings in ruminants caused by Palicourea species in different regions of Brazil were statistically analyzed by relative frequency (RF), according to the formula of Sadat-Hosseini et al. [23] with modifications. The RF was obtained by dividing the number of documents per state (ND) by the total number of documents (N), according to the following formula: RF = (ND/N) × 100.

3. Results

3.1. Spontaneous Poisoning by Palicourea Species

Spontaneous poisoning in ruminants caused by Palicourea species have been reported in nine Brazilian states, mainly in Pernambuco (14.29%), Paraíba (14.29%), Goiás (14.29%), São Paulo (14.29%), and Tocantins (14.29%) (Table 1, Figure 2). It is important to highlight that no cases of poisoning were recorded in states in the South region of Brazil. Poisonous species of this genus, such as Palicourea aeneofusca (Müll.Arg.) Standl., Palicourea colorata (Hoffmanns. ex Willd.) Delprete & J.H.Kirkbr. (Syn. Psychotria colorata), Palicourea grandiflora (Kunth) Standl., Palicourea hoffmannseggiana (Willd. ex Schult.) Borhidi (Syn. Psychotria hoffmannseggiana), Palicourea marcgravii (A.St.-Hil.), and Palicourea violacea (Aubl.) A.Rich. (Syn. Psychotria capitata) have been reported from these regions. Cattle were the main animals affected; however, there are records that these plants also caused poisoning in sheep and goats (Table 2).
Cases of poisoning by several species of Palicourea (Figure 3) in production animals have been well reported in the Northeast region of Brazil [21,24,25,26,27]. In the dairy region of Pernambuco, P. colorata (Syn. Psychotria colorata), P. hoffmannseggiana (Syn. Psychotria hoffmannseggiana), and P. violacea (Syn. Psychotria capitata) have been reported as poisonous to cattle, but scientific information to support this hypothesis is lacking [27]. The clinical signs observed in poisoned animals included gait instability, muscle tremors, and deaths after the cattle were forced to move. It is important to highlight that, to date, no scientific studies have been found that prove the toxic effects of P. colorata, P. hoffmannseggiana, and P. violacea, and phytochemical and toxicological investigations are necessary to determine the possible mechanisms of action involved in the deaths of the animals.
Palicourea marcgravii has been reported as causing poisoning in cattle, goats, and sheep in several states in the Midwest, North, and Southeast regions of Brazil [9,15,19,28,29,30]. The clinical signs observed in animals poisoned by P. marcgravii were described with the following characteristics: urination, ataxia, agitation, lateral recumbency, muscle tremors, pedaling movements, dyspnea, loss of balance, depression, falls, convulsions, polyuria, engorged jugular veins, tachycardia, arrhythmia, increased respiratory rate, and sudden death (Table 2).
Some studies reported difficulties related to prophylaxis and control of P. marcgravii on rural properties to avoid new cases of poisoning [9,15,28]. Paim et al. [15] reported that one of the factors that make prophylaxis difficult is the depth of the root of P. marcgravii; even when pulled out by producers, the plant grows back. Therefore, the best option is to inspect pastures to identify the occurrence of this plant and fence the areas to prevent cattle access [9]. Another solution is to stimulate the development of tolerance and resistance of animals to poisoning by P. marcgravii [28]. Costa et al. [2] reported that the administration of sodium trifluoroacetate in cattle can induce effective resistance against poisoning by plants containing sodium monofluoroacetate. It is important to highlight that each rural property has different characteristics, and monitoring by a qualified professional in the area is essential to determine and execute the necessary prophylactic measures.
Table 2. Spontaneous poisoning in ruminants caused by Palicourea species in different regions of Brazil.
Table 2. Spontaneous poisoning in ruminants caused by Palicourea species in different regions of Brazil.
Species Affected AnimalsClinical SignsOutbreak YearBrazilian StateReferences
Palicourea aeneofusca (Müll. Arg.) Standl.CattleSudden deathNot specifiedPernambucoMelo et al. [27]
Cattle Sudden death associated with exercise 2015 and 2016SergipeNascimento et al. [21]
CattleLethargy, sternal recumbency, lateral recumbency, fatigue, tachypnea, tachycardia, muscle tremors, pedaling movements, and death2012 and 2013PernambucoBrito et al. [25]
CattleMuscle tremors, falls, and death2007Paraíba Vasconcelos et al. [24]
Goats Motor incoordination, muscle tremors, tachypnea, tachycardia, dyspnea, pedaling movements, and death2016ParaíbaOliveira Neto et al. [26]
Palicourea colorata (Hoffmanns. ex Willd.) Delprete & JHKirkbr. (Syn. Psychotria colorata)CattleGait instability, muscle tremors, and deathNot specifiedPernambucoMelo et al. [27]
Palicourea grandiflora (Kunth) Standl.Sheep Muscle tremors, falls, and death2008 to 2011RondôniaSchons et al. [31]
Palicourea hoffmannseggiana (Willd. ex Schult.) Borhidi (Syn. Psychotria hoffmannseggiana)CattleGait instability, muscle tremors, and deathNot specifiedPernambucoMelo et al. [27]
Palicourea marcgravii (A.St.-Hil.)CattleSudden death2008 to 2011RondôniaSchons et al. [31]
CattleLateral recumbency, pedaling movements, opisthotonus, jugular engorgement, and death2010 and 2012GoiásSant’Ana et al. [32]
Cattle Urination, ataxia, and deathNot specifiedGoiásPaim et al. [15]
Sheep Agitation, isolation, lateral recumbency, muscle tremors, pedaling movements, and death Not specifiedSão PauloKoether et al. [19]
CattleDyspnea, loss of balance, muscle tremors, lateral recumbency, pedaling movements, and death1953 to 2018Southeast, Midwest, and North RegionUbiali et al. [9]
CattleDepression, falls, ataxia, seizures, polyuria,
and death		2007 and 2008TocantinsCosta et al. [29]
CattleSudden deathNot specifiedDistrito FederalFerreira Junior et al. [33]
CattleMuscle tremors, engorged jugular veins, falling, pedaling movements, tachycardia, arrhythmia, dyspnea, and death2010 and 2011TocantinsHelayel et al. [30]
Cattle, goats, and sheepMuscle tremors, seizures, and death2000São PauloSoto-Blanco et al. [28]
CattleFalls, lateral recumbency, pedaling movements, opisthotonus, jugular engorgement, and deathNot specifiedMinas GeraisAlves et al. [34]
Palicourea violacea (Aubl.) A.Rich. (Syn. Psychotria capitata)Cattle Gait instability, muscle tremors, and deathNot specifiedPernambucoMelo et al. [27]

3.2. Experimental Poisoning by Palicourea Species

A total of six Palicourea species have been reported as causing spontaneous poisonings in Brazil (Table 2); however, only three have been investigated through experimental studies with ruminants. These experimental studies investigated the toxic potential of P. juruana [35,36], P. aeneofusca [18,25,37], and P. marcgravii [2,16,38,39,40,41,42,43] in cattle, goats, sheep, and buffalo. The summary of these results is described in Table 3.

3.2.1. Palicourea juruana K.Krause.

Palicourea juruana has been the target of research to evaluate its toxic effects on cattle and buffalo [35,36]. Consuming fresh leaves of this plant can result in different symptoms depending on the dose administered. According to Oliveira et al. [35], when 2 g/kg of fresh leaves was ingested by a buffalo, the animal presented symptoms such as sternal recumbency, pedaling movements, opisthotonus, dyspnea, and death. In cattle, ingestion of 0.25 g/kg of fresh leaves caused imbalance, falling, lateral recumbency, and death. Histopathological findings revealed the presence of lesions in the liver and myocardium. The poisoning by P. juruana in buffaloes and cattle demonstrated that, although buffaloes are more resistant to the toxin, with lethal doses between 1 and 2 g/kg, the clinical signs observed in both species were similar [35]. Santos et al. [36] reported that cattle previously poisoned by P. juruana presented the following alterations in the heart: marked coagulative necrosis of cardiomyocytes with loss of striations and areas of fiber flocculation, associated with a marked inflammatory infiltrate composed mainly of macrophages.

3.2.2. Palicourea aeneofusca (Müll. Arg.) Standl.

Experimental poisoning by P. aeneofusca has been observed in cattle and goats [18,25,37]. According to Oliveira et al. [37], the administration of 0.02 and 0.06 g/kg of dehydrated leaves of P. aeneofusca in goats resulted in falls, apathy, anorexia, tachycardia, imbalance, motor incoordination, lateral recumbency, opisthotonus, nystagmus, pedaling movements, and death. Strategies related to the induction of conditioned aversion to this plant were also investigated. Oliveira et al. [18] reported that the administration of 0.35 g/kg of fresh leaves of P. aeneofusca followed by 175 mg/kg of lithium chloride (LiCl) was effective in inducing conditioned food aversion in goats, without causing toxicity or clinical symptoms. The aversion persisted for 90 days, even with the high palatability of the plant. For cattle, aversion to P. aeneofusca induced by a single dose of LiCl persisted for 12 months [25]. This approach may be promising for preventing plant poisoning in goats and cattle.

3.2.3. Palicourea marcgravii (A.St.-Hil.)

Popularly known as “erva-de-rato”, P. marcgravii stands out as one of the main poisonous plants in Brazil. Cattle are the main animals affected; however, there are records of experimental poisoning in goats, buffaloes, and sheep [2,16,38,39,40,41,42,43]. According to Barbosa et al. [38], cattle that received a dose of 2 g/kg of fresh leaves of P. marcgravii showed moderate hydropic-vacuolar degeneration of the epithelial cells of the distal convoluted tubules of the kidneys in histopathological examinations. Similar results were observed in buffaloes poisoned with 4 g/kg of fresh leaves of this plant [38].
Histopathological examinations of cattle poisoned with 1.0 g/kg of fresh leaves of P. marcgravii revealed the presence of individual muscle fibers or groups of cardiomyocytes with increased sarcoplasmic eosinophilia, loss of striations, and, sometimes, pyknotic nuclei in the hearts of the animals [40]. In Nelore, Curraleiro Pé-Duro, and Pantaneiro calves that received a dose of 1.8 g/kg of the leaves of this plant, severe histopathological lesions were observed in the kidneys, including multifocal cytoplasmic macro-vacuolization in epithelial cells of the convoluted tubules and in some medullary tubules, with marked nuclear pyknosis [41].
In sheep experimentally poisoned by P. marcgravii, it was found through electrocardiographic and echocardiographic examinations that the cause of death in these animals was acute heart failure characterized by arrhythmias, ventricular tachycardia/fibrillation, a drop in cardiac output, left ventricular systolic dysfunction, decreased fractional shortening of the left ventricle, and decreased aortic flow velocity and aortic flow gradient [16]. In another study, it was observed that the myocardium of sheep that received 1 g/kg of P. marcgravii presented areas and foci of coagulative necrosis, characterized by an increase in the cytoplasm of muscle fibers and pyknosis [42]. These results demonstrate the severity of poisoning by this plant in sheep and reinforce the importance of adopting prophylactic measures against P. marcgravii on rural properties.
Table 3. Experimental poisonings in ruminants by Palicourea species.
Table 3. Experimental poisonings in ruminants by Palicourea species.
SpeciesPart of the PlantDoseAnimalsClinical SignsReferences
Palicourea juruana K. KrauseFresh leaves0.25–2 g/kg BuffaloesLateral recumbency, sternal recumbency, disordered movements, opisthotonus, dyspnea, and death Oliveira et al. [35]
Fresh leaves0.125–2 g/kg CattleFalls, imbalance, sternal recumbency, pedaling movements, lateral recumbency, opisthotonus, dyspnea, deathOliveira et al. [35]
Palicourea aeneofusca (Müll. Arg.) Standl.Fresh leaves35 mg/kg Cattle On the fifth day of the experiment, two cattle showed signs of poisoning and diedBrito et al. [25]
Fresh leaves0.35 g/kgGoatsLithium chloride administration in goats was effective in inducing conditioned food aversion to P. aeneofuscaOliveira et al. [18]
Dehydrated leaves0.02–0.06 g/kg GoatsFalls, apathy, anorexia, tachycardia, imbalance, motor incoordination, lateral recumbency, opisthotonus, nystagmus, pedaling movements, and deathOliveira et al. [37]
Palicourea marcgravii
(A. St.-Hil.)		Fresh and dehydrated plant0.5–1 g/kgSheepTachypnea, tachycardia, sternal recumbency, difficulty walking, muscle tremors, lateral recumbency, pedaling movements, opisthotonus, and deathTokarnia et al. [22]
Fresh leaves0.25–2.0 g/kgCattleSternal recumbency, lateral recumbency, tachycardia, engorged jugular vein, disordered movements, dyspnea, and deathBarbosa et al. [38]
Fresh leaves0.5–6.0 g/kgBuffaloesMuscle tremors, sternal recumbency, lateral recumbency, pedaling movements, engorged jugular vein, dyspnea, opisthotonus, and deathBarbosa et al. [38]
Fresh leaves1.0 g/kgCattleTachycardia, tachypnea, muscle tremors, pollakiuria, instability, loss of balance, lateral recumbency, pedaling movements, dyspnea, arrhythmia, opisthotonus, nystagmus, and deathPeixoto et al. [40]
Fresh leaves0.2 and 2 g/kgGoatsTachycardia, anorexia, apathy, arrhythmia, tachypnea, sternal recumbency, and deathBarbosa et al. [39]
Fresh leaves2.0 g/kgCalvesJugular vein distension, reluctance to exercise, weakness, motor incoordination, ataxia, and sternal recumbencyCosta et al. [2]
Leaves 1.8 g/kgCattleFalls, apathy, muscle tremors, loss of appetite, jugular distension, tachycardia, abdominal breathing, lateral recumbency, sternal recumbency, pedaling movements, and deathSerodio et al. [41]
Fresh plant1 g/kgSheepAbdominal breathing, coughing, head pressure, and nystagmusCunha et al. [42]
Fresh plant1 g/kgSheepDeaths caused by acute heart failure, arrhythmias, ventricular tachycardia/fibrillation, and decreased cardiac outputCunha et al. [16]
Fresh plant1 g/kgSheepCardiac lesions detected by analysis of serum troponin I levelsCunha et al. [43]

3.3. Toxicity of Sodium Monofluoroacetate

In Brazil, the numerous plants that cause sudden death are responsible for significant economic losses, with an estimated loss of at least 600,000 head of cattle per year [44]. Among these plants, those belonging to the Palicourea genus stand out, which cause sudden deaths associated with exercise and contain high concentrations of sodium monofluoroacetate (Figure 4) [7]. In addition to sudden death, MFA is also associated with cases of reproductive disorders in ruminants [45,46]. Although this compound was discovered around 1896, in Brazil, MFA was first identified in dehydrated leaves of P. marcgravii using the column chromatography method [47]. Lee et al. [48] also reported the occurrence of MFA in P. marcgravii and P. aeneofusca at concentrations of 0.24% and 0.09%, respectively. The high concentration of MFA in P. marcgravii may be directly related to the large number of outbreaks of poisoning in ruminants in different regions of Brazil. In a later study, Cook et al. [49] identified the occurrence of MFA through the HPLC–APCI–MS method in several other Palicourea species, including P. grandiflora, P. aff. juruana, P. amapaensis, P. longiflora, P. aff. longiflora, P. macarthurorum, P. nigricans, and P. vacillans.
In an experiment conducted by Nogueira et al. [50], it was reported that doses of 0.5 and 1.0 mg/kg of MFA administered orally to cattle caused lesions characterized by hydropic-vacuolar degeneration of the distal convoluted uriniferous tubules and, eventually, of the collecting tubules, associated with karyopyknosis. Regarding the mode of action of MFA, it has been described that fluoroacetate binds to acetyl coenzyme A (CoA) to form fluoroacetyl CoA, which replaces acetyl CoA in the Krebs cycle and reacts with citrate synthase to produce fluorocitrate. This toxic metabolite blocks aconitase, preventing the formation of the coenzymes NADH and FADH2, and consequently, there is no transfer of electrons to the respiratory chain and formation of ATP from ADP, culminating in the blockage of the Krebs cycle [51].

4. Discussion

Many studies that reported the occurrence of spontaneous poisoning in ruminants by Palicourea species in different regions of Brazil did not specify the period of the outbreaks on rural properties (Table 2). These gaps may hinder the development of future studies, as the wealth of detail in epidemiological data is very important for monitoring over time and strategic planning to prevent new outbreaks of poisoning. Furthermore, there is another major problem related to the correct identification of the scientific names of plants that cause poisoning in animals. In some studies, the authors included synonyms instead of the accepted scientific names of plants. For example, species belonging to the genus Psychotria are often confused with species of Palicourea. These limitations in the content of articles in the area of poisonous plants reinforce the need for knowledge from botanical taxonomists to assist in the correct identification of plants.
Although Palicourea species occur in all geographic regions of Brazil, these plants are also commonly found in other countries, including Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, and Argentina [52,53]. However, no records were found of cases of poisoning by Palicourea species in ruminants in these other countries in Central and South America. Considering the well-documented cases of poisoning in Brazil, it is important to disseminate this knowledge so that producers in other regions of the world where these plants occur can adopt preventive measures to avoid animal losses due to poisoning on their rural properties.
Just as the Palicourea genus is well known for causing economic losses on several Brazilian properties, other cardiotoxic plants are also associated with cases of sudden death in ruminants in the country [7]. Several studies have reported that Ateleia glazioveana Baill. [54,55], Nerium oleander L. [56,57], Amorimia septentrionalis W.R. Anderson [58], and Niedenzuella stannea (Griseb.) W.R. Anderson [59,60,61] affect cardiac function and cause death in poisoned animals.
Heterophyllaea pustulata Hook.f. is another species belonging to the Ruabiaceae family reported as causing poisoning in ruminants in Argentina [62,63]. According to Micheloud et al. [62], sheep poisoned by this species showed clinical signs of photosensitization, including photophobia, itching, restlessness, edema on the face and ears, intense tearing, and necrosis with formation of crusts on the skin. These authors associated photosensitization of animals with the ingestion of anthraquinones present in the leaves of H. pustulata. In addition to sheep, Micheloud et al. [63] also reported that goats that ingested the leaves of this plant presented photophobia, pruritus, restlessness, congestion, edema, anorexia, and blindness. Histopathological findings of the liver revealed diffusely and moderately swollen hepatocytes and finely granular cytoplasm with irregular cell borders [63].
Sodium monofluoroacetate was also identified in other species belonging to the Malpighiaceae and Bignoniaceae families that cause poisoning in ruminants in Brazil [59,64,65,66]. According to Cunha et al. [64], MFA was isolated from Mascagnia rigida (Amorimia rigida (A. Juss.) W.R. Anderson) using chromatography and infrared spectroscopy techniques. Lima et al. [65] detected the occurrence of MFA in the leaves of Amorimia pubiflora (A. Juss.) W.R.Anderson using the HPLC method. Species of the genus Amorimia generally present MFA concentrations ranging from 0.0007 to 0.02% [48]. Niedenzuella stannea (Griseb.) W.R. Anderson, a species reported to cause sudden death in cattle, showed different MFA concentrations depending on the plant part analyzed by HPLC–APCI–MS (0.06–0.0003%) [59]. These concentrations are lower than those found for Palicourea species, where P. aeneofusca and P. marcgravii present concentrations ranging from 0.09 to 0.24% MFA [48].
In addition to MFA, other chemical compounds belonging to the alkaloid class have already been identified in Palicourea species that are mentioned as toxic to ruminants. These compounds were identified in P. marcgravii [67,68,69] and P. hoffmannseggiana (Syn. Psychotria barbiflora) [69,70]. However, it is important to highlight that no records were found on the relationship between these substances and cases of poisoning. In this context, it is likely that MFA is, in fact, responsible for animal deaths associated with the consumption of Palicourea species in different regions of Brazil.

5. Conclusions

Spontaneous poisonings in ruminants caused by P. aeneofusca, P. colorata (Syn. Psychotria colorata), P. grandiflora, P. hoffmannseggiana (Syn. Psychotria hoffmannseggiana), P. marcgravii, and P. violacea (Syn. Psychotria capitata) were recorded in the Northeast, North, Midwest, and Southeast regions of Brazil. Palicourea species generally cause sudden death in poisoned animals, especially P. marcgravii. Although cattle are more susceptible to poisoning by these plants, there are reports of cases in sheep, goats, and buffalo. Sodium monofluoroacetate has been widely identified in P. marcgravii, and several studies have highlighted that this is the main compound responsible for poisoning cases in farm animals.

6. Future Directions

Despite epidemiological evidence of cases of spontaneous poisoning in Brazil, the species P. colorata, P. grandiflora, P. hoffmannseggiana, and P. violacea have not yet been experimentally tested for their toxic potential, and studies of this nature are necessary. Considering that these plants belong to the genus Palicourea, it is likely that their toxic active component is also sodium monofluoroacetate. However, it is necessary to carry out phytochemical analyses of the extracts obtained from these species to confirm the occurrence of this compound and identify other possible toxic substances, such as alkaloids, which may also be associated with cases of poisoning in ruminants.
Taken together, this information reinforces the importance of adopting effective prophylactic measures in ruminant production areas to prevent contact between animals and plants of the Palicourea genus. As reported in previous studies, measures such as pruning leaves and branches of toxic species, using herbicides to control poisonous plants, fencing off infested areas, and inspecting the forage offered to animals can be effective alternatives to reduce losses caused by plant poisoning.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/vetsci12060540/s1, Table S1: Characterization of the articles selected in the databases and included in the review.

Author Contributions

All authors contributed to manuscript review, editing, final proofreading, and approving for submission. F.A.d.O.B.: Methodology; Data curation; Formal analysis; Investigation; Writing—original draft. E.R.d.A.: Methodology; Data curation; Formal analysis; Investigation; Writing—original draft. J.J.L.B.: Conceptualization; Methodology; Data curation; Formal analysis; Investigation; Validation; Writing—original draft; Writing—review and editing. A.F.M.d.O.: Project administration; Data curation; Supervision; Writing—review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data used to support the findings of this study are included in this article.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES—Brazil) and the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq—Brazil) for granting Scholarships to Flávia Aparecida de Oliveira Bezerra and Emily Rodrigues de Andrade, respectively. The last author thanks CNPq for the research fellowship (310177/2022-7).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
ADPAdenosine diphosphate
ATPAdenosine triphosphate
CoACoenzyme A
HPLC–APCI–MSHigh-performance liquid chromatography–atmospheric pressure chemical ionization–tandem mass spectrometry
MFASodium monofluoroacetate
NDNumber of documents per state
NTotal number of documents
RFRelative frequency
WFOWorld Flora Online

References

  1. Abdisa, T.; Dilbato, T. Toxic Plants and Their Impact on Livestock Health and Economic Losses: A Comprehensive Review. J. Toxicol. 2024, 2024, 9857933. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Costa, A.G.; Carvalho, A.Ú.; Melo, M.M.; Soto-Blanco, B. Sequential administrations of trifluoroacetate induce tolerance to Palicourea maccgravii, a monofluoroacetate-containing plant, in calves. Toxicon 2019, 160, 8–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Pessoa, C.R.; Medeiros, R.M.; Riet-Correa, F. Importância econômica, epidemiologia e controle das intoxicações por plantas no Brasil. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2013, 33, 752–758. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Molossi, F.A.; Cecco, B.S.; Pohl, C.B.; Borges, R.B.; Sonne, L.; Pavarini, S.P.; Driemeier, D. Causes of death in beef cattle in southern Brazil. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. 2021, 33, 677–683. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Bezerra, J.J.L.; Pinheiro, A.A.V.; Lucena, R.B. Poisoning in ruminants caused by species of the genus Cestrum L. (Solanaceae) in Brazil: A review of toxicological and phytochemical evidence. Toxicon 2023, 236, 107348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Riet-Correa, F.; Machado, M.; Micheloud, J.F. Plants causing poisoning outbreaks of livestock in South America: A review. Toxicon X 2023, 17, 100150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Nascimento, N.C.; Aires, L.D.; Pfister, J.A.; Medeiros, R.M.; Riet-Correa, F.; Mendonça, F.S. Plantas cardiotóxicas para ruminantes no Brasil. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2018, 38, 1239–1249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Pessoa, D.A.; Medeiros, R.M.; Riet-Correa, F. Techniques for prevention and control of poisoning by sodium monofluoroacetate (MFA)-containing plants in ruminants. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2019, 39, 771–779. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Ubiali, D.G.; Cardoso, L.F.C.; Pires, C.A.; Riet-Correa, F. Palicourea marcgravii (Rubiaceae) poisoning in cattle grazing in Brazil. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2020, 52, 3527–3535. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Davis, A.P.; Govaerts, R.; Bridson, D.M.; Ruhsam, M.; Moat, J.; Brummitt, N.A. A global assessment of distribution, diversity, endemism, and taxonomic effort in the Rubiaceae. Ann. Missouri. Bot. Gard. 2009, 96, 68–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Berger, A.; Valant-Vetschera, K.; Schinnerl, J.; Brecker, L. Alkaloid diversification in the genus Palicourea (Rubiaceae: Palicoureeae) viewed from a (retro-) biogenetic perspective. Phytochem. Rev. 2022, 21, 915–939. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Santivañez, J.C.M.; Angolini, C.F.F. The genus Palicourea Aubl. (Rubiaceae): Source of bioactive compounds. Nat. Prod. Res. 2025, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Green, B.T.; Welch, K.D.; Lee, S.T.; Stonecipher, C.A.; Gardner, D.R.; Stegelmeier, B.L.; Davis, T.Z.; Cook, D. Biomarkers and their potential for detecting livestock plant poisonings in Western North America. Front. Vet. Sci. 2023, 10, 1104702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Terra, J.P.; Blume, G.R.; Rabelo, R.E.; Medeiros, J.T.; Rocha, C.G.; Chagas, I.N.; Aguiar, M.S.; Sant’Ana, F.J.D. Neurological diseases of cattle in the state of Goiás, Brazil (2010–2017). Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2018, 38, 1752–1760. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Paim, R.D.C.S.; Paula, L.G.F.; Soares, D.M.; Rocha, T.F.G.; Ribeiro, A.L.; Barros, N.; Dos Santos, F.C.; Ferreira, H.D.; Gomes-Klein, V.L.; Soto-Blanco, B.; et al. Toxic plants from the perspective of a “Quilombola” community in the Cerrado region of Brazil. Toxicon 2023, 224, 107028. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Cunha, I.M.; Lessa, D.A.; Carvalho, V.A.; Alencar, N.X.; Teixeira, A.L.; Chenard, M.G.; Souza, G.N.; Helayel, M.J.S. Electrocardiographic, echocardiographic and heart biomarker parameters in sheep experimentally poisoned by Palicourea marcgravii (Rubiaceae). Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2022, 42, e07097. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Benchohra, M.; Hemida, H.; Ali-Nehari, A.; Adnane, M.; Boumezrag, A.; Chikhaoui, M. Sudden death syndrome in domestic ruminants: A review. Comp. Clin. Pathol. 2024, 33, 489–502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Oliveira, M.D.; Riet-Correa, F.; Silva, G.B.D.; Pereira, W.D.S.; Freire, L.F.S.; Medeiros, R.M.T. Conditioned food aversion to control Palicourea aeneofusca poisoning. Cienc. Rural 2014, 44, 1246–1248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Koether, K.; Lee, S.T.; Belluci, R.S.; Garcia, R.; Pfister, J.A.; Cunha, P.H.J.; Rocha, N.S.; Borges, A.S.; Oliveira-Filho, J.P. Spontaneous poisoning by Palicourea marcgravii (Rubiaceae) in a sheep herd in southeastern Brazil. Toxicon 2019, 161, 1–3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Leong, L.E.; Denman, S.E.; Kang, S.; Mondot, S.; Hugenholtz, P.; McSweeney, C.S. Identification of the mechanism for dehalorespiration of monofluoroacetate in the phylum Synergistota. Anim. Biosci. 2023, 37, 396–403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Nascimento, E.M.; Medeiros, R.M.; Riet-Correa, F. Plantas tóxicas para ruminantes e equídeos do estado de Sergipe. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2018, 38, 835–839. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Tokarnia, C.H.; Peixoto, P.V.; Döbereiner, J. Intoxicação experimental por Palicourea marcgravii (Rubiaceae) em ovinos. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 1986, 6, 121–131. [Google Scholar]
  23. Sadat-Hosseini, M.; Farajpour, M.; Boroomand, N.; Solaimani-Sardou, F. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous medicinal plants in the south of Kerman, Iran. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2017, 199, 194–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Vasconcelos, J.S.D.; Riet-Correa, F.; Dantas, A.F.M.; Medeiros, R.M.; Dantas, Á.J.D.A. Mortes súbitas em bovinos causadas por Palicourea aeneofusca (Rubiaceae) e Mascagnia rigida (Malpighiaceae) na Zona da Mata Paraibana. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2008, 28, 457–460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Brito, L.B.D.; Albuquerque, R.F.; Rocha, B.P.; Albuquerque, S.S.; Lee, S.T.; Medeiros, R.M.T.; Riet-Correa, F.; Mendonça, F.D.S. Spontaneous and experimental poisoning of cattle by Palicourea aeneofusca in the region of Pernambuco and induction of conditioned food aversion. Cienc. Rural 2016, 46, 138–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Oliveira Neto, T.S.; Riet-Correa, F.; Lee, S.T.; Cook, D.; Barbosa, F.M.S.; Silva Neto, J.F.; Simões, S.V.D.; Lucena, R.B. Poisoning in goats by the monofluoracetate-containing plant Palicourea aeneofusca (Rubiaceae). Toxicon 2017, 135, 12–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Melo, J.K.; Ramos, T.R.; Baptista Filho, L.C.; Cruz, L.V.; Wicpolt, N.S.; Fonseca, S.; Mendonça, F.S. Poisonous plants for ruminants in the dairy region of Pernambuco, Northeastern Brazil. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2021, 41, e06807. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Soto-Blanco, B.; Haraguchi, M.; Silva, J.A.; Górniak, S.L. Intoxicação natural de caprinos e ovinos por Palicourea marcgravii St. Hil. (Rubiaceae). Rev. Caatinga 2004, 17, 52–56. [Google Scholar]
  29. Costa, A.M.D.; Souza, D.P.M.; Cavalcante, T.V.; Araújo, V.L.; Ramos, A.T.; Maruo, V.M. Plantas tóxicas de interesse pecuário em região de Ecótono Amazônia e Cerrado. Parte II: Araguaína, norte do Tocantins. Acta Vet. Bras. 2011, 5, 317–324. [Google Scholar]
  30. Helayel, M.A.; Barbosa, F.B.; Carvalho-Júnior, C.P.; Ramos, A.T.; Aguiar-Junior, M.A.; Aguiar, D.M.; Bruns, L.V.; Silva, M.A. Intoxicação natural por Palicourea marcgravii (Rubiaceae) em bovinos no Estado do Tocantins. Arq. Pesqui. Anim. 2012, 1, 8–12. [Google Scholar]
  31. Schons, S.V.; Lopes, T.V.; Melo, T.L.D.; Lima, J.P.; Riet-Correa, F.; Barros, M.Â.D.B.; Schild, A.L.P. Intoxicações por plantas em ruminantes e equídeos na região central de Rondônia. Ciênc. Rural 2012, 42, 1257–1263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Sant’Ana, F.J.F.D.; Reis Junior, J.L.; Freitas Neto, A.P.; Moreira Junior, C.A.; Vulcani, V.A.S.; Rabelo, R.E.; Terra, J.P. Plantas tóxicas para ruminantes do Sudoeste de Goiás. Ciênc. Rural 2014, 44, 865–871. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Ferreira Junior, J.A.; Novaes, E.D.P.F.; Barbosa, E.F.G.; Nascimento, K.A.; Macêdo, J.T.S.A.; Pedroso, P.M.O. Spontaneous poisoning by Palicourea marcgravii in bovine in the Federal District, Brazil. Ciênc. Anim. 2021, 31, 178–183. [Google Scholar]
  34. Alves, D.A.; Aquino, R.F.; Abreu, C.M.; Lima, V.A.P.; Bispo, C.A.S.; Pereira, G.C. Plantas tóxicas para bovinos em Minas Gerais. Ciênc. Anim. 2021, 31, 58–66. [Google Scholar]
  35. Oliveira, C.M.C.D.; Barbosa, J.D.; Macedo, R.S.; Brito, M.D.F.; Peixoto, P.V.; Tokarnia, C.H. Estudo comparativo da toxidez de Palicourea juruana (Rubiaceae) para búfalos e bovinos. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2004, 24, 27–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Santos, A.M.; Peixoto, P.V.; D’Ávila, M.S.; Peixoto, T.C.; França, T.N.; Costa, S.Z.; Cid, G.C.; Nogueira, V.A. Troponina C na detecção imuno-histoquímica de alterações regressivas precoces no miocárdio de bovinos e ovinos intoxicados por monofluoroacetato de sódio. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2016, 36, 67–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Oliveira, M.D.D.; Riet-Correa, F.; Carvalho, F.K.; Silva, G.B.; Pereira, W.S.; Medeiros, R.M. Indução de resistência à intoxicação por Palicourea aeneofusca (Rubiaceae) mediante administração de doses sucessivas não tóxicas. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2013, 33, 731–734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Barbosa, J.D.; Oliveira, C.M.C.D.; Tokarnia, C.H.; Riet-Correa, F. Comparação da sensibilidade de bovinos e búfalos à intoxicação por Palicourea marcgravii (Rubiaceae). Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2003, 23, 167–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Barbosa, E.D.F.; Cardoso, S.P.; Cabral Filho, S.L.S.; Borges, J.R.J.; Lima, E.M.M.; Riet-Correa, F.; Castro, M.B. Sinais clínicos e patologia da intoxicação crônica experimental de caprinos por Palicourea marcgravii. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2015, 35, 209–215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Peixoto, T.C.; Nogueira, V.A.; Caldas, S.A.; França, T.N.; Anjos, B.L.; Aragão, A.P.; Peixoto, P.V. Efeito protetor da acetamida em bovinos indica monofluoroacetato como princípio tóxico de Palicourea marcgravii (Rubiaceae). Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2012, 32, 319–328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Serodio, J.J.; Castro, L.T.S.; Morais, T.L.; Cunha, R.D.S.; Sant’Ana, F.J.F.; Juliano, R.S.; Borges, J.R.J.; Fioravanti, M.C.S.; Cunha, P.H.J. Evaluation of the resistance of Nellore, Curraleiro Pe-duro and Pantaneiro cattle breeds by experimental intoxication of Palicourea marcgravii. Toxicon 2019, 168, 126–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Cunha, I.M.; Lessa, D.A.; Carvalho, V.A.; Alencar, N.X.; Teixeira, A.L.; Caldas, A.S.; Souza, G.N.; Helayel, M.J. Clinical and laboratory findings in sheep experimentally poisoned by Palicourea marcgravii and the use of magnesium chloride with possible therapeutic effect on poisoning. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2021, 41, e06931. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Cunha, I.M.; Lessa, D.A.; Carvalho, V.A.; Santos, B.B.; Souza, G.N.; Alencar, N.X.; Russano, K.; Paes, J.M.; Chenard, M.G.; Helayel, M.J. Serum and immunohistochemical analyses of troponin I in sheep experimentally poisoned with Palicourea marcgravii. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2024, 44, e07422. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Peixoto, T.C.; Oliveira, L.I.; Caldas, S.A.; Catunda Junior, F.E.; Carvalho, M.G.; França, T.N.; Peixoto, P.V. Efeito protetor da acetamida sobre as intoxicações experimentais em ratos por monofluoroacetato de sódio e por algumas plantas brasileiras que causam morte súbita. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2011, 31, 938–952. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Lopes, J.R.; Araújo, J.A.; Pessoa, D.A.; Lee, S.; Cook, D.; Riet-Correa, F.; Medeiros, R.M. Neonatal mortality associated with sodium monofluoracetate in kids fed with colostrum from goats ingesting Amorimia septentrionalis. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2019, 39, 163–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Coy, D.; Cruz-Carrillo, A.; Lizarazo-Cely, S. Some phytotoxins causing reproductive alterations in ruminants. Toxicon 2024, 247, 107769. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Oliveira, M.M. Chromatographic isolation of monofluoroacetic acid from Palicourea marcgravii St. Hil. Experientia 1963, 19, 586–587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Lee, S.T.; Cook, D.; Riet-Correa, F.; Pfister, J.A.; Anderson, W.R.; Lima, F.G.; Gardner, D.R. Detection of monofluoroacetate in Palicourea and Amorimia species. Toxicon 2012, 60, 791–796. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Cook, D.; Lee, S.T.; Taylor, C.M.; Bassüner, B.; Riet-Correa, F.; Pfister, J.A.; Gardner, D.R. Detection of toxic monofluoroacetate in Palicourea species. Toxicon 2014, 80, 9–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Nogueira, V.A.; França, T.N.; Peixoto, T.C.; Caldas, S.A.; Armién, A.G.; Peixoto, P.V. Intoxicação experimental por monofluoroacetato de sódio em bovinos: Aspectos clínicos e patológicos. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2010, 30, 533–540. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Nogueira, V.A.; Peixoto, T.C.; França, T.N.; Caldas, S.A.; Peixoto, P.V. Intoxicação por monofluoroacetato em animais. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2011, 31, 823–838. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Taylor, C.M. Revision of Palicourea (Rubiaceae) in Mexico and Central America. Syst. Bot. Monogr. 1989, 26, 1–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Taylor, C.M. Conspectus of the genus Palicourea (Rubiaceae: Psychotrieae) with the description of some new species from Ecuador and Colombia. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 1997, 84, 224–262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Gava, A.; Barros, C.S.; Pilati, C.; Barros, S.S.; Mori, A.M. Intoxicação por Ateleia glazioviana (Leg. Papilionoideae) em bovinos. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2001, 21, 49–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Gava, A.; Molossi, F.A.; Ogliari, D.; Melchioretto, E.; Pasquali, E.; Roso, J. Spontaneous poisoning by Ateleia glazioviana (leg. Papilionoideae) in sheep and goats in the West region of Santa Catarina. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2021, 41, e06724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Pedroso, P.M.; Bandarra, P.M.; Bezerra Júnior, P.S.; Raymundo, D.L.; Borba, M.R.; Leal, J.S.; Driemeier, D. Intoxicação natural e experimental por Nerium oleander (Apocynaceae) em bovinos no Rio Grande do Sul. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2009, 29, 404–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Zorzan, A.A.; Perosa, F.F.; Cecco, B.S.; Santos, I.R.; Menegatt, J.C.O.; Bandinelli, M.B.; Dalto, A.G.C.; Pavarini, S.P.; Panziera, W. Intoxicação por Nerium oleander em bovinos: Uso de imuno-histoquímica para troponina C como método de diagnóstico auxiliar. Cienc. Rural 2024, 54, e20230288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Albuquerque, S.S.; Rocha, B.P.; Almeida, V.M.; Oliveira, J.S.; Riet-Correa, F.; Lee, S.T.; Evêncio Neto, J.; Mendonça, F.S. Fibrose cardíaca associada à intoxicação por Amorimia septentrionalis em bovinos. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2014, 34, 433–437. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Arruda, F.P.D.; Caldeira, F.H.B.; Ducatti, K.R.; Bezerra, K.S.; Marcolongo-Pereira, C.; Lee, S.T.; Cook, D.; Riet-Correa, F.; Colodel, E.M. Experimental poisoning by Niedenzuella stannea in cattle and corresponding detection of monofluoroacetate. Ciênc. Rural 2017, 47, e20160761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Caldeira, F.H.; Dias, G.B.; Arruda, F.P.D.; Lourenço, V.D.M.; Bezerra, K.S.; Riet-Correa, F.; Colodel, E.M. Morte súbita associada a Niedenzuella stannea (Malpighiaceae) em bovinos no Estado de Mato Grosso: Importância e investigação epidemiológica. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2017, 37, 662–666. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Caldeira, F.H.; Arruda, F.P.D.; Shenkel, D.M.; Marcolongo-Pereira, C.; Lee, S.T.; Cook, D.; Riet-Correa, F.; Colodel, E.M. Intoxicação experimental por Niedenzuella stannea (Malpighiaceae) em ovinos. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2017, 37, 681–685. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Micheloud, J.F.; Colque-Caro, L.A.; Comini, L.R.; Cabrera, J.L.; Núñez-Montoya, S.; Martinez, O.G.; Gimeno, E.J. Spontaneous photosensitization by Heterophyllaea pustulata Hook. f. (Rubiaceae), in sheep from Northwestern Argentina. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2017, 49, 1553–1556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  63. Micheloud, J.F.; Aguirre, L.S.; Marioni, J.; Mugas, M.L.; Cabrera, J.L.; Martinez, O.G.; Gallardo, S.C.; Gimeno, E.J.; Núñez-Montoya, S.C. Experimental poisoning by Heterophyllaea pustulata Hook. f. (Rubiaceae) in goats. Clinical, biochemical and toxicological aspects. Toxicon 2019, 165, 56–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Cunha, L.C.; Pípole, F.; Carvalho, L.R.; Lago, J.H.G.; Górniak, S.L. Isolation and characterization of sodium 2-fluoroacetate from Mascagnia rigida using chromatography and infrared spectroscopy. Toxicon 2012, 60, 329–332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  65. Lima, S.C.; Godoy, K.C.; Leal, P.V.; Lee, S.T.; Pfister, J.A.; Souza, A.I.; Barros, C.L.S.; Lemos, R.A. Toxicity of the different vegetative stages of Amorimia pubiflora to sheep. Toxicon 2019, 158, 47–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Lima, E.F.; Medeiros, R.M.T.; Cook, D.; Lee, S.T.; Kaehler, M.; Santos-Barbosa, J.M.; Riet-Correa, F. Studies in regard to the classification and putative toxicity of Fridericia japurensis (Arrabidaea japurensis) in Brazil. Toxicon 2016, 115, 22–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Morita, H.; Ichihara, Y.; Takeya, K.; Watanabe, K.; Itokawa, H.; Motidome, M. A new indole alkaloid glycoside from the leaves of Palicourea marcgravii. Planta Med. 1989, 55, 288–289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Kemmerling, W. Toxicity of Palicourea marcgravii: Combined effects of fluoroacetate, N-methyltyramine and 2-methyltetrahydro-β-carboline. Z. Naturforsch. C 1996, 51, 59–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Teixeira, C.J.R.; Saraiva, C.J.C.; Soto-Blanco, B. Caffeine levels in leaves of Palicourea marcgravii and Palicourea hoffmannseggiana (Rubiaceae). Arq. Bras. Med. Vet. Zootec. 2025, 77, e13277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Oliveira, A.M.; Lemos, R.P.L.; Conserva, L.M. β-Carboline alkaloids from Psychotria barbiflora DC. (Rubiaceae). Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 2013, 50, 339–341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Vetsci 12 00540 g001
Figure 1. Flow diagram of selection of scientific documents included in this review.
Figure 1. Flow diagram of selection of scientific documents included in this review.
Vetsci 12 00540 g001
Vetsci 12 00540 g002
Figure 2. Geographic distribution of ruminant poisonings caused by Palicourea species in Brazil. Map produced by José Jailson Lima Bezerra in MapChart© (https://mapchart.net, accessed on 6 December 2024).
Figure 2. Geographic distribution of ruminant poisonings caused by Palicourea species in Brazil. Map produced by José Jailson Lima Bezerra in MapChart© (https://mapchart.net, accessed on 6 December 2024).
Vetsci 12 00540 g002
Vetsci 12 00540 g003
Figure 3. Natural occurrence of species of the genus Palicourea in the Atlantic Forest of Recife, state of Pernambuco, Brazil. (A,B) Palicourea colorata. (C,D) Palicourea violacea. Photos by Flavia Oliveira.
Figure 3. Natural occurrence of species of the genus Palicourea in the Atlantic Forest of Recife, state of Pernambuco, Brazil. (A,B) Palicourea colorata. (C,D) Palicourea violacea. Photos by Flavia Oliveira.
Vetsci 12 00540 g003
Vetsci 12 00540 g004
Figure 4. Illustration of poisoning in ruminants by Palicourea species containing sodium monofluoroacetate. Created in https://biorender.com, accessed on 6 December 2024.
Figure 4. Illustration of poisoning in ruminants by Palicourea species containing sodium monofluoroacetate. Created in https://biorender.com, accessed on 6 December 2024.
Vetsci 12 00540 g004
Table 1. Number of scientific articles with reports of spontaneous poisoning in ruminants caused by Palicourea species by geographic region and state of Brazil.
Table 1. Number of scientific articles with reports of spontaneous poisoning in ruminants caused by Palicourea species by geographic region and state of Brazil.
Geographic RegionBrazilian State *DNRF (%)
NortheastPernambuco (PE)214.29
Paraíba (PB)214.29
Sergipe (SE)17.14
MidwestGoiás (GO)214.29
Distrito Federal (DF)17.14
NorthTocantins (TO)214.29
Rondônia (RO)17.14
SoutheastSão Paulo (SP) 214.29
Minas Gerais (MG)17.14
Total14100
* Scientific documents that did not specify the Brazilian state where the research was carried out were not included in this relative frequency analysis. DN: document numbers per state; RF: relative frequency.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

de Oliveira Bezerra, F.A.; de Andrade, E.R.; Bezerra, J.J.L.; de Oliveira, A.F.M. Poisoning in Ruminants by Palicourea Aubl. Species (Rubiaceae) in Brazil: A Review. Vet. Sci. 2025, 12, 540. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12060540

AMA Style

de Oliveira Bezerra FA, de Andrade ER, Bezerra JJL, de Oliveira AFM. Poisoning in Ruminants by Palicourea Aubl. Species (Rubiaceae) in Brazil: A Review. Veterinary Sciences. 2025; 12(6):540. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12060540

Chicago/Turabian Style

de Oliveira Bezerra, Flávia Aparecida, Emily Rodrigues de Andrade, José Jailson Lima Bezerra, and Antonio Fernando Morais de Oliveira. 2025. "Poisoning in Ruminants by Palicourea Aubl. Species (Rubiaceae) in Brazil: A Review" Veterinary Sciences 12, no. 6: 540. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12060540

APA Style

de Oliveira Bezerra, F. A., de Andrade, E. R., Bezerra, J. J. L., & de Oliveira, A. F. M. (2025). Poisoning in Ruminants by Palicourea Aubl. Species (Rubiaceae) in Brazil: A Review. Veterinary Sciences, 12(6), 540. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12060540

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop