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Article

Physicochemical Properties and Antioxidant Profile of a Fermented Dairy Beverage Enriched with Coffee By-Products

by
Maria Alexandraki
1,
Ioannis Maisoglou
2,
Michalis Koureas
3,
Vasiliki Kossyva
2,
Anastasia Tzereme
2,
Ermioni Meleti
1,
Mariastela Vrontaki
1,
Vasileios Manouras
1,
Lamprini Dimitriou
1,
Eleni Malissiova
1,* and
Athanasios Manouras
2
1
Food of Animal Origin Laboratory, Animal Science Department, University of Thessaly, 41500 Larisa, Greece
2
Food Chemistry, Biochemistry and Technology Laboratory, Nutrition and Dietetics Department, University of Thessaly, 42132 Trikala, Greece
3
Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, 41500 Larisa, Greece
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Beverages 2025, 11(4), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11040121
Submission received: 10 May 2025 / Revised: 26 June 2025 / Accepted: 8 August 2025 / Published: 20 August 2025
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Versions Notes

Abstract

Functional beverages are increasingly sought as components of a healthy diet, and goat milk offers a nutritious base with unique sensory attributes. This study aimed to develop a novel fermented goat milk beverage enriched with spent coffee grounds (SCG) extract, utilizing SCG’s high natural antioxidant content to improve nutritional and functional properties. SCG was extracted via aqueous solid–liquid extraction and lyophilized; its extract was incorporated into goat milk–fructose blends at 0%, 1%, and 2% (w/v). Analyses included physicochemical characterization (pH, acidity, fat, and protein), total phenolic content, and antioxidant capacity via DPPH assay, alongside consumer sensory evaluation for acceptance and purchase intent. Results demonstrated that higher SCG extract levels significantly increased pH, phenolic concentrations, and radical scavenging activity while reducing titratable acidity. The 2% SCG formulation achieved the highest overall, taste, and aftertaste acceptance and purchase intention. These findings suggest that SCG-enriched goat dairy beverages are feasible functional foods with enhanced antioxidant properties and consumer appeal, promoting valorization of coffee by-products.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

In recent years, functional foods have attracted the attention and interest of consumers due to their potential to maintain or improve human health [1,2]. The growing consumer demand for functional foods has led to the development of novel dairy-based products with enhanced nutritional and health-promoting properties [3,4].
The importance of goats in particular for milk production has been of great concern to the national and global scientific community due to the continuing increasing demand for dairy products, traditionally consumed in certain regions of the world, but also because of their particular sensory characteristics, as well as their specific composition of fats, proteins, amino acids, and fatty acids [2,5,6,7]. In addition, the nutritional properties of goat’s milk and its hypoallergenicity, compared to cow’s milk, have raised interest in goat’s milk functionality, and is one of the current trends in healthy eating in developed countries [5,8,9]. Goat’s milk proteins differ significantly from other types of milk mainly in their amino acid composition. Goat milk is of high biological value and bioavailability, and does not cause allergies, as its content of α1-casein is very low [5,10,11]. Despite the health benefits of goat milk, the flavor of it is more intense in comparison to cow’s milk [12], which can restrict its acceptance by consumers. Therefore, consumer acceptance of goat yogurt and beverages is low due to its “goaty” flavor resulting from high levels of caproic, caprylic, and capric fatty acids compared to other ruminant species [12,13,14]. There have been many efforts to develop new goat milk products with improved taste and flavor acceptable to consumers [3,13,15].
Sustainability and waste utilization, on the other hand, are very important in today’s era and are a key concern for the food industry [16]. Coffee processing produces significant by-products, including coffee pulp, which is often discarded despite being a rich source of bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, flavonoids, and dietary fiber [16,17,18,19]. The idea of using coffee pulp by-product extracts as an ingredient in functional food formulations is an opportunity to enhance both the nutritional value and antioxidant potential of dairy products, while reducing environmental waste [20]. So, coffee brewing waste could be a valuable source to produce hydrophilic bioactive antioxidants for food supplements and additives [21]. All spent coffee (from filter-, plunger-, and espresso-type coffeemakers) have relevant amounts of polyphenolic compounds, known for their antioxidant and antimicrobial activities [22,23,24,25,26]. Its water/solid extract is a promising, environmentally friendly source of polyphenols, including chlorogenic acids, caffeic acid, gallic acid, caffeine, kaempferol, quercetin, and other phenolic compounds [27,28]. These compounds can be efficiently recovered through green extraction methods, such as extraction through hot water or ultrasonic extraction, and used in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic applications due to their health-promoting properties [16,25,27]. Melanoidins, another antioxidant component extracted from SCG, have been found to exert bacteriostatic activity even at low concentrations, thus reducing pathogenic infectivity, and may be used as natural antimicrobial agents in thermally processed foods [29]. The main objective of this study is to develop and evaluate a novel fermented dairy beverage based on goat milk, enriched with aqueous extracts of spent coffee grounds (SCG). This study aims to enhance the nutritional and functional profile of the beverage by utilizing the bioactive compounds found in SCG. Furthermore, it seeks to enhance consumer acceptance of goat milk products by modifying their sensory characteristics, while at the same time promoting sustainable practices through the utilization of coffee processing waste.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

Spent coffee grounds from Arabica beans collected one day after coffee brewing at 95 °C under 20 bar were provided by a local coffee house in Greece. Τhe goat milk was provided by the agricultural cooperative MENIKIO of Drama, while the fructose was a standardized product purchased from the local market. YF-L903 (Chr. Hansen, Hoersholm, Denmark), a frozen culture composed of Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus, was purchased from ELTON Group of Companies in Sindos and stored in a −18 °C freezer until use.

2.2. Preparation of Dairy Beverage Enhanced with Spent Coffee Grounds Extract

The production process of fermented dairy beverages enriched with coffee by-products extract (spent coffee grounds—SCG) is presented in Figure 1. SCG, which is rich in natural antioxidants [23], was extracted by solid/liquid extraction with water as a solvent and dehydrated by the lyophilization technique (BK-FD10P–BIOBASE). Moreover, SCG extract was pre-frozen at −80 °C for 12 h, followed by freeze-drying under a vacuum pressure < 10 KPa for 24 h. The dry SCG extract was characterized by a total phenolic content of 66.58 ± 2.11 mg GAE/g extract. The SCG extract was added into a mixture of 95% goat milk and 5% fructose in concentrations of 0%, 1%, and 2% (BEV0, BEV1, and BEV2). Then the mixture was pasteurized at 85 °C and, after cooling to 42 °C, yogurt-producing cultures were added; these remained for 5 h at that incubation temperature. After coagulation, the mixture exhibited a yogurt-like appearance and viscosity. To obtain a drinkable texture, it was diluted 1:1 with water, then homogenized to improve mouthfeel and ensure a uniform consistency, and finally cooled down to 5 °C. At the end, the samples of fermented dairy beverage were packaged in bottles of 500 mL and stored at 4 °C until use. Three batches were prepared for each SCG extract concentration.

2.3. Physicochemical Characteristics

The physicochemical profile of the developed products was evaluated by the following analysis: pH was determined by a pH meter (Hach, HQ 11d), fat content by the Gerber method according to ISO 19662:2018: [30], the protein content according to the Kjeldahl method for dairy products according to ISO8968-1:2014 [31], and the acidity percentage of the beverage (in % lactic acid) was assessed by the titrimetric method according to ISO 6091:2010 [32]. All materials and reagents used for the analyses in this study were of analytical grade, and all analyses were performed on three different production batches of the BEV0, BEV1, and BEV2.

2.4. Total Phenolic Content

The total phenolic content was analyzed using a method described by Vazquez CV et al. (2015) [33] with minor modifications. Samples were centrifuged at 4500 rpm for 15 min at room temperature. The supernatant was then collected and centrifuged again at 4500 rpm for 15 min. Then, 100 μL of Folin–Ciocalteu’s reagent was added to the final supernatant of the sample (100 μL); after it reacted for 2 min, 800 μL of 2% Na2CO3 was then added and reacted for 20 min. The absorbance was measured at 740 nm using an absorbance spectrometer (LLG-uniSPEC2). The measured absorbance content was calculated using a standard curve for the standard gallic acid (Sigma Aldrich, Co., St. Louis, MO, USA). All analyses were performed on three different production batches of the BEV0, BEV1, and BEV2.

2.5. Antioxidant Capacity Using 2,2-Diphenyl-2-Picrylydrazyl (DPPH) Radical Scavenging Activity Assay

The DPPH radical scavenging ability was analyzed using the method described by Huaxin et al. (2022) [34] with minor modifications. For the DPPH reagent, 2 mM DPPH was prepared using methyl alcohol, and the absorbance volume was 1 mL and the measurement was recorded at 517 nm using an absorbance spectrophotometer (XD7000 (VIS) spectrophotometer, Lovibond). The samples were centrifuged at 4500 rpm for 15 min at room temperature. The supernatant was then collected and centrifuged again at 4500 rpm for 15 min. An amount of 100 μL of each sample was mixed with 850 μL of methanol and 50 μL of 2 mM DPPH solution. The mixture was incubated in the dark at room temperature for at least 20 min and the absorbance was measured at 517 nm. The control was prepared by adding only methanol to DPPH reagent, and the analysis was followed as described above. The results were expressed as a percentage inhibition (I%) using the following equation:
D P P H   R a d i c a l   s c a v e n g i n g   a c t i v i t y   % = A   C o n t r o l − A   s a m p l e A   c o n t r o l   × 100
where A Control is the absorbance of the control and A Sample is the absorbance of each sample, BEV0, BEV1, and BEV2.
A Control: a tube containing only methanol; A sample: a tube containing the sample.
The half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) was also calculated by plotting the inhibition data against the SCG extract concentration. The IC50 value expresses the amount of SCG extract required to reduce the presence of DPPH by 50%. All analyses were performed on three different production batches of the BEV0, BEV1, and BEV2.

2.6. Sensory Evaluation

A sensory acceptance test was developed utilizing the 5-point hedonic scale, with 131 volunteer untrained adult tasters of both genders, 80 men and 51 women, aged between 18 and 60 years, and being accustomed to the frequent consumption of yogurt and coffee. The sensory analysis was conducted during the exhibition “Agrothessaly” in Larisa, Thessaly, where the new product was presented. The sensory questionnaire was approved by the Internal Ethics Committee of the Department of Animal Science (University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece) (12579/25/TEZP-5/5/25). Before the experiments began, participants were provided with information on hygiene and safety of samples offered to them, and then were given oral instructions on how to conduct the tasting. All participants were asked to complete an informed consent form. The tests were conducted in individual booths, where consumers received an evaluation sheet to evaluate the samples, using a balanced 5-point hedonistic verbal scale ranging from 1 (dislike extremely) to 5 (liked extremely), suitable to consumers involved in the preference test on our products [35,36,37]. Participants evaluated three dairy beverage samples, two with 1% and 2% of SCG extract and one without (BEV0, BEV1, and BEV2). Note that 15 mL of each sample encoded with a three-digit number were randomly distributed to the tasters in 30 mL disposable cups. Consumers evaluated the samples presented simultaneously. Participants were also given odorless and tasteless bottled water to cleanse the palate between samples. Participants were asked to rate the samples for overall acceptability, followed by appearance, aroma, taste, texture, flavor balance (overall harmony among taste, sweetness, and acidity), and aftertaste after swallowing the three samples using a 5-point hedonic scale based on the left (“I dislike it”) and the right (“I like it very much”) (1 = dislike; 5 = like very much). The method of assessing overall satisfaction and purchase intention was assessed on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = dissatisfied and 5 = very satisfied; 1 = I would never buy and 5 = I would definitely buy).

2.7. Statistical Analysis

All data handling and analyses were conducted in R (version 4.3.2; R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria). Descriptive statistics (mean ± standard deviation) were calculated for each beverage type (BEV0, BEV1, and BEV2) at 1, 7, and 15 days of refrigerated storage. To test for differences, we fit a mixed-design analysis of variance (ANOVA). In this model, beverage type was treated as a between-subjects factor and Day as a within-subjects (repeated-measures) factor. We extracted p-values for the between-subjects effect of Beverage type (testing parameter differences among BEV0, BEV1, and BEV2) and the within-subjects effect of Day (testing temporal changes in the examined parameters across days 1, 7, and 15). Statistical significance was assessed at α = 0.05. The same process was repeated for pH, acidity %, total phenolic content, and DPPH scavenging activity. To calculate IC50, a four-parameter log-logistic dose–response model (LL.4) was fitted using the drc package in R. Sensory evaluation scores were grouped by sample type and summary statistics (mean  ±  SD) calculated for each beverage. A one-way ANOVA was also performed to examine differences in overall satisfaction scores and purchase likelihood across age groups.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Physicochemical Characteristics of Fermented Dairy Beverages Enriched with Coffee By-Products Extract

The physicochemical characteristics of fermented dairy beverages enriched with coffee by-products extract are presented in Table 1. All of the analyses were conducted on day 1. The pH values of the samples were within the typical range (3.9–4.4) [38] of fermented dairy products, indicating successful fermentation. However, small but statistically significant variations in pH were observed between the samples (p = 0.004), with BEV2 showing the highest pH (4.10), followed by BEV1 (3.95) and BEV0 (3.93). This trend suggests that the addition of SCG (spent coffee grounds) extract may have affected the activity of the starter cultures, possibly reducing their activity and thus lactic acid production. This hypothesis is further supported by the titratable acidity values, where BEV0 showed the highest acidity (0.93%), while BEV1 and BEV2 showed progressively lower acidity levels (0.90% and 0.86%, respectively). These results align with the antimicrobial activity of SCG [39,40]. Protein and fat content remained within the normal range for goat milk beverages (protein at 2–4% and fat at 1.5–3.5%) [38], although small decreases in BEV2 were observed compared to BEV0, possibly due to interactions between the components of the SCG extract and milk proteins and fats [41,42].
It was also found that the pH value in all samples was significantly affected (p < 0.05) during storage, as the pH value decreased significantly in all samples during the storage period of 15 days (Figure 2). Also, the acidity values in all beverage samples showed a significant increase during the 15th day storage period (p < 0.05) (Figure 3). However, on the first day of storage, a decreasing trend in acidity was observed with an increasing SCG addition (BEV0 > BEV1 > BEV2), as shown in Table 1. During the storage periods, the pH values gradually decreased, and the acidity gradually increased in all treatments throughout the 15-day storage period. The acidity was due to the conversion of lactose to lactic acid during the storage period. These results were in accordance with a previous study of Pimpley et al. (2022) [43].

3.2. Total Phenolic Content of Dairy Beverages Enriched with SCG Extract

The total phenolic contents (TPCs) of the dairy beverages enriched with SCG extract are presented in Table 2. BEV1 and BEV2 showed significantly higher (p < 0,05) TPCs (165.56 ± 2.52 and 245.15 ± 9.53 µg GAE/mL, respectively) than BEV0 (45.38 ± 2.31 µg GAE/mL), which does not contain SCG extract. The total phenolic content (TPC) increased progressively during storage in all beverage samples, with more pronounced increases observed in the SCG-enriched samples BEV1 and BEV2, 195.53 ± 4.63 µg GAE/mL and 263.54 ± 2.67 µg GAE/mL, compared to BEV0 (74.14 ± 1.86 µg GAE/mL) on the 7th day of storage. The TPC of all beverages increased significantly (p < 0.05) further at 15 days of storage for BEV0, BEV1, and BEV2 (93.54 ± 2.03 µg GAE/mL, 252.56 ± 1.15 µg GAE/mL, and 312.45 ± 5.29 µg GAE/mL), respectively. Phenolic compounds have antioxidant activity and possess antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuro-protective properties [44]. In the present study, dairy beverages enriched with SCG extract showed a high amount of TPC. These findings can be attributed to the high content of polyphenols found in the SCG extracts [23,25,27,45]. The increase in polyphenols during the storage of beverages could be due to the interaction between milk proteins (caseins) and phenolic compounds [46,47].

3.3. Antioxidant Activity of Dairy Beverages Enriched with SCG Extract

Τhe antioxidant activity of the three fermented goat milk beverages (BEV0, BEV1, and BEV2) enriched with ground coffee (SCG) extracts was evaluated by DPPH radical scavenging assays on days 1, 7, and 15 of refrigerated storage (Figure 4). Overall, DPPH scavenging activity (% inhibition) increased not only in beverages with SCG extract concentrations but also during storage time, indicating a concentration- and time-dependent enhancement of antioxidant properties. BEV0, the control sample without SCG extract enrichment, showed the lowest DPPH values throughout the study, but not zero. Starting from 18.2% inhibition on the first day, it increased slightly to 20.6% inhibition by the 15th day (Figure 4). The antioxidant capacity observed in the control sample is attributed mainly to the goats’ feeding regime, the type of plants consumed during grazing, the season of the year, and the milk pasteurization conditions [48]. The milk we obtained from the MENIKIO co-operative in Drama comes from free-range goats mainly consuming the rich natural flora of the Drama Region. In many studies, it seems that there was a beneficial increase in the TPC concentration and antioxidant capacity in milk, whey, and cheese from goats fed with the free-range grazing system, while the gradual increase in antioxidant activity during the storage phase is attributed to continuous bioactive transformations related to fermentation, even in the absence of SCG extracts [49,50,51,52,53]. Bacterial starters have a high impact on the value of the antioxidant potential [54]. Many studies have shown that fermented milk products, such as yogurt, kefir, etc., have antioxidant properties and are able to inhibit DPPH scavenging activity. Milk fermentation with lactic acid bacteria contributes to the provision of a huge number of bioactive peptides, phenolic metabolites, and free amino acids with different biological activities, and, in addition, various studies show that probiotic strains also exhibit significant antioxidant properties [55]. On the other hand, BEV1 and BEV2, enriched with increasing concentrations of SCG extracts, exhibited significantly higher DPPH values. BEV1 started at 59.5% inhibition on day 1 and reached 63.5% inhibition on day 15, while BEV2 displayed the highest antioxidant activity among the three samples, increasing from 76.2% inhibition on day 1 to 80.4% inhibition on day 15 (Figure 4). All samples presented statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) in DPPH scavenging activity (% inhibition). The enhancement of antioxidant activity with higher concentrations of SCG extract mirrors previous findings in the literature, where fortification with polyphenol-rich sources led to a concentration-dependent increase in both the total polyphenol content and radical scavenging activity [19,23]. The data show that fortification with SCG extract not only significantly enhances the initial antioxidant properties, but also maintains these benefits over time, highlighting the potential of SCG-fortified goat milk beverages as functional foods with extended health benefits during storage.
The half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of the SCG extract was determined to be 4.14 ± 0.15 mg/mL. For context, the IC50 value of vitamin C, a well-established antioxidant, is reported in the literature as 0.11 ± 0.01 mg/mL [56]. Although the extract exhibits lower antioxidant potency compared to vitamin C, it is important to note that the beverages contained 10 mg/mL (BEV1) and 20 mg/mL (BEV2) of SCG extract—concentrations significantly higher than the extract’s IC50. This suggests that the product formulation delivers a functionally effective antioxidant dose under typical use conditions.

3.4. Sensory Evaluation of Dairy Beverages Enriched with SCG Extract

The sensory analysis gives a final assessment of the acceptability of the newly developed product based on organoleptic tests. A total of 131 participants took part in the sensory evaluation, representing five age groups ranging from 18 years to over 50. Across most age groups, male participants outnumbered female participants, although one middle age group had an equal distribution of men and women.
Sensory profiling across six attributes revealed a clear improvement with SCG fortification (Figure 5). The control sample (BEV0) received the lowest scores, particularly in taste and flavor, likely due to its plain, goaty profile. SCG-enriched samples (BEV1 and BEV2) were rated more favorably in all sensory aspects, especially in terms of flavor, aftertaste, and balance, defined here as the overall harmony among taste, sweetness, and acidity. Regarding texture, no significant difference (p < 0.05) was found between the BEV1 and BEV2 treatments, although BEV2 recorded slightly higher values. The control sample (BEV0) showed the lowest texture score, indicating a less favorable mouth feel compared to the fortified drinks. The improvement in texture for BEV1 and BEV2 may be attributed to the addition of SCG powder extract, which reduced the overall moisture content, increased the dry matter, and enhanced the perceived body of the beverage. Regarding taste, a significant difference was observed between BEV1 and BEV2 compared to the control sample. BEV0 scored the lowest on taste, possibly due to the absence of SCG extract, while BEV2 achieved the highest taste score (suggesting that the SCG-enriched flavor positively affected the palatability and depth of flavor). Also, this improvement can be attributed to the presence of bioactive compounds in the SCG extracts, which enrich the complexity of the taste. Regarding appearance, a significant difference was also observed between the control and SCG-enriched samples. BEV0 scored the lowest, highlighting its less attractive appearance compared to BEV1 and BEV2. Fortification with SCG extracts likely improved the visual appeal of the beverage, possibly through the introduction of melanoids from SCG that enhance color [29,57]. The balance characteristics were also improved by the enhancement of SCG. BEV0 had no balance score because there is no addition of SCG, while BEV1 and BEV2 achieved (3.60) and (4.40), respectively, suggesting that the enhancement contributed to a more harmonious integration of the taste components. Regarding the aftertaste, BEV2 again showed superiority with a score of (4.10) compared to (3.10) for BEV0. The improved aftertaste could be due to the taste of the SCG extracts, which are well known, providing a more pleasant and lasting sensory impression [58,59].
In Figure 6, consumers’ purchase intention and overall satisfaction scores (mean ± SD) for the three beverages are presented. The control (BEV0) showed moderate purchase intent (3.11 ± 0.77) and satisfaction (3.19 ± 0.71). Fortification with SCG extract increased both metrics: BEV1 scored 3.53 ± 0.74 for purchase and 3.71 ± 0.74 for satisfaction, while BEV2 achieved the highest values of 4.26 ± 0.81 and 4.37 ± 0.75, respectively, demonstrating that SCG enrichment markedly enhances consumer acceptability. The combination of coffee’s taste with the fermented goat’s milk beverage seems to be most popular with the younger audience, as the familiar and pleasant taste of coffee helps balance and smooth out the “goaty” taste of milk [13].
The assessment of overall satisfaction and purchase intention for the three beverage samples (BEV0, BEV1, and BEV2) by age group revealed some interesting trends in demographic preferences, which are shown in Table 3.
For the BEV0 sample, statistically significant differences were observed between age groups for both satisfaction (p < 0.001) and purchase intention (p = 0.004). This suggests that the acceptance of the unfortified beverage is strongly influenced by age, with older age groups (>50) showing higher scores compared to younger participants.
For the BEV1 sample, scores were elevated across all age groups, with ages 36–50 and >50 giving the highest scores. Purchase intention showed a statistically significant difference (p = 0.031), while overall satisfaction did not reach statistical significance (p = 0.058), but showed a trend of differentiation that deserves further investigation. In contrast, for the BEV2 sample, although the average values of satisfaction and purchase intention were the highest among all samples, no statistically significant differences were found by age group (satisfaction, p = 0.179; purchase intention, p = 0.059). This may indicate a wider acceptance of the enriched BEV2 drink regardless of age, which strengthens the proposition of this specific product as more universally acceptable.

4. Conclusions

This study provides a new perspective on the potential of incorporating spent coffee extract (SCG) into a fermented goat milk-based beverage to enhance its nutritional, functional, and organoleptic properties. Among the beverages developed, BEV2 emerged as the most promising, presenting consistent physicochemical characteristics, such as pH, acidity, proteins, and lipids, and, at the same time, significantly enhanced the antioxidant activity, as evidenced by the highest TPC and DPPH values. Also, the addition of SCG extract affected the phenolic content and the % inhibition of DPPH in the dairy beverages during 15 days of refrigerated storage. Furthermore, BEV2 received the highest organoleptic acceptance scores from the participants due to its favorable taste profile and the well-balanced aftertaste of it. These findings suggest that the addition of SCG extract into dairy products not only utilizes coffee by-products but also contributes to the development of biofunctional beverages with potential health benefits.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.M. and E.M. (Eleni Malissiova); methodology, A.M. and E.M. (Eleni Malissiova); software, M.A. and M.K.; validation, A.M. and E.M. (Eleni Malissiova); formal analysis, M.A., I.M., V.K., M.V., L.D. and E.M. (Ermioni Meleti); investigation, M.A., V.K., A.T. and M.K.; resources, A.M.; data curation, E.M., I.M., V.M., L.D. and M.K.; writing—original draft preparation, M.A., M.K., E.M. (Ermioni Meleti), and L.D.; writing—review and editing, A.M., I.M., M.V., V.K., A.T. and E.M. (Eleni Malissiova); visualization, M.A., M.K. and V.M.; supervision, E.M. (Eleni Malissiova); project administration, A.M.; funding acquisition, A.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded in the context of Operational Groups (OGs) for the productivity and sustainability of agriculture. Measure 16—Cooperation and Innovation. Rural Development Program of Greece 2014–2022. Sub-Measure 16.1–16.2—Establishment and operation of PES operational teams for agricultural productivity and sustainability. Project title: Transfer of know-how for the utilization of goat milk and espresso coffee residues in the production of high value-added products, starting with an innovative yogurt dessert. Project Acronym: YGEIARTOS.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by Internal Ethics Committee of the Department of Animal Science (University of Thessaly, Greece) (12579/25/TEZP-5/5/25).

Informed Consent Statement

Written informed consent has been obtained from the patients to publish this paper.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge ELTON Group of Companies in Sindos for the offer of yogurt starters.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
SCGSpent coffee grounds
TPCTotal phenolic compound
DPPH2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
IC50Half-maximal inhibitory concentration
GAEGallic acid equivalent
BEV0Goat dairy fermented beverage with 0% SCG extract
BEV1Goat dairy fermented beverage with 1% SCG extract
BEV2Goat dairy fermented beverage with 2% SCG extract
ISOInternational Organization for Standardization
LL.4Four-parameter logistic model

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Beverages 11 00121 g001
Figure 1. Production process of fermented dairy beverages enriched with coffee by-products extract (spent coffee grounds).
Figure 1. Production process of fermented dairy beverages enriched with coffee by-products extract (spent coffee grounds).
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Beverages 11 00121 g002
Figure 2. Changes in pH values during 15 days of refrigerated storage at 4 °C. Data are presented as means ± standard deviation of samples (n = 3).
Figure 2. Changes in pH values during 15 days of refrigerated storage at 4 °C. Data are presented as means ± standard deviation of samples (n = 3).
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Beverages 11 00121 g003
Figure 3. Changes in acidity % values during 15 days of refrigerated storage at 4 °C. Data are presented as means ± standard deviation of samples (n = 3).
Figure 3. Changes in acidity % values during 15 days of refrigerated storage at 4 °C. Data are presented as means ± standard deviation of samples (n = 3).
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Beverages 11 00121 g004
Figure 4. DPPH scavenging activity (% inhibition) of dairy beverage without coffee by-products (BEV0), dairy beverage with 1% SCG extract (BEV1), and dairy beverages with 2% SCG extract (BEV2) during 15 days of refrigerated storage at 4 °C. Data are presented as means ± standard deviation of samples (n = 3).
Figure 4. DPPH scavenging activity (% inhibition) of dairy beverage without coffee by-products (BEV0), dairy beverage with 1% SCG extract (BEV1), and dairy beverages with 2% SCG extract (BEV2) during 15 days of refrigerated storage at 4 °C. Data are presented as means ± standard deviation of samples (n = 3).
Beverages 11 00121 g004
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Figure 5. Sensory evaluation of dairy beverage without coffee by-products (BEV0), dairy beverage with 1% SCG extract (BEV1), and dairy beverages with 2% SCG extract (BEV2) on the third day of refrigerated storage at 4 °C. Hedonic scale: 1—dislike and 5—extremely like.
Figure 5. Sensory evaluation of dairy beverage without coffee by-products (BEV0), dairy beverage with 1% SCG extract (BEV1), and dairy beverages with 2% SCG extract (BEV2) on the third day of refrigerated storage at 4 °C. Hedonic scale: 1—dislike and 5—extremely like.
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Figure 6. (A) Overall acceptance; (B) Purchase intention.
Figure 6. (A) Overall acceptance; (B) Purchase intention.
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Table 1. Physicochemical characteristics of fermented goat milk beverage with different SCG extract contents.
Table 1. Physicochemical characteristics of fermented goat milk beverage with different SCG extract contents.
BEV0BEV1BEV2p-Value *
pH3.93 ± 0.013.95 ± 0.034.10 ± 0.020.004
Titratable acidity%0.93 ± 0.010.90 ± 0.010.86 ± 0.010.003
Protein content%3.46 ± 0.153.35 ± 0.163.23 ± 0.190.066
Fat content%3.17 ± 0.123.07 ± 0.232.87 ± 0.150.051
BEV0, BEV1, BEV2: Different additional SCG concentration levels in goat beverages (0% to 2%); means ± standard deviation of samples (n = 3). * One-way ANOVA.
Table 2. Total phenolic content (TPC: μg GAE/mL) of dairy beverages enriched with SCG extract.
Table 2. Total phenolic content (TPC: μg GAE/mL) of dairy beverages enriched with SCG extract.
Total Phenolic Content (TPC)
SamplesDay 1
(μg GAE/mL)		Day7
(μg GAE/mL)		Day 15
(μg GAE/mL)
BEV045.38 ± 2.3174.14 ± 1.8693.54 ± 2.03
BEV1165.56 ± 2.52195.53 ± 4.63252.56 ±1.15
BEV2245.15 ± 9.53263.54 ± 2.67312.45 ± 5.29
Means ± standard deviation of samples (n = 3). Between-subjects (BEV) ANOVA: p < 0.001. Repeated-measures (Day) ANOVA: p < 0.001.
Table 3. Overall satisfaction and purchase likelihood scores for each beverage by age group.
Table 3. Overall satisfaction and purchase likelihood scores for each beverage by age group.
BeverageAge GroupSatisfactionp-Value *Purchase_Likelihoodp-Value *
BEV0≤252.92 ± 0.67<0.0012.88 ± 0.770.004
26–353.18 ± 0.61 3.14 ± 0.71
36–503.26 ± 0.71 3.11 ± 0.7
>503.65 ± 0.69 3.54 ± 0.76
BEV1≤253.6 ± 0.70.0583.40 ± 0.640.031
26–353.57 ± 0.79 3.32 ± 0.77
36–504.04 ± 0.76 3.78 ± 0.8
>503.73 ± 0.67 3.73 ± 0.72
BEV2≤254.4 ± 0.670.1794.38 ± 0.640.059
26–354.11 ± 0.88 3.89 ± 1.13
36–504.52 ± 0.51 4.33 ± 0.48
>504.42 ± 0.9 4.35 ± 0.89
* One-way ANOVA.
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Alexandraki, M.; Maisoglou, I.; Koureas, M.; Kossyva, V.; Tzereme, A.; Meleti, E.; Vrontaki, M.; Manouras, V.; Dimitriou, L.; Malissiova, E.; et al. Physicochemical Properties and Antioxidant Profile of a Fermented Dairy Beverage Enriched with Coffee By-Products. Beverages 2025, 11, 121. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11040121

AMA Style

Alexandraki M, Maisoglou I, Koureas M, Kossyva V, Tzereme A, Meleti E, Vrontaki M, Manouras V, Dimitriou L, Malissiova E, et al. Physicochemical Properties and Antioxidant Profile of a Fermented Dairy Beverage Enriched with Coffee By-Products. Beverages. 2025; 11(4):121. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11040121

Chicago/Turabian Style

Alexandraki, Maria, Ioannis Maisoglou, Michalis Koureas, Vasiliki Kossyva, Anastasia Tzereme, Ermioni Meleti, Mariastela Vrontaki, Vasileios Manouras, Lamprini Dimitriou, Eleni Malissiova, and et al. 2025. "Physicochemical Properties and Antioxidant Profile of a Fermented Dairy Beverage Enriched with Coffee By-Products" Beverages 11, no. 4: 121. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11040121

APA Style

Alexandraki, M., Maisoglou, I., Koureas, M., Kossyva, V., Tzereme, A., Meleti, E., Vrontaki, M., Manouras, V., Dimitriou, L., Malissiova, E., & Manouras, A. (2025). Physicochemical Properties and Antioxidant Profile of a Fermented Dairy Beverage Enriched with Coffee By-Products. Beverages, 11(4), 121. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11040121

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