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Article

Mixture Design and Kano Model for a Functional Chickpea and Hibiscus Beverage

by
Fernando López-Cardoso
1,
Nayely Leyva-López
2,
Erick Paul Gutiérrez-Grijalva
3,
Rosabel Vélez de la Rocha
1,
Luis Angel Cabanillas-Bojórquez
2,
Josué Camberos-Barraza
4,
Feliznando Isidro Cárdenas-Torres
5,* and
José Basilio Heredia
1,*
1
Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C. Carretera a Eldorado Km 5.5 Col. Campo El Diez, Culiacán 80110, Sinaloa, Mexico
2
Estancias Posdoctorales por México SECIHTI, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo A.C., Carretera a Eldorado Km. 5.5, Col Campo El Diez, Culiacán 80110, Sinaloa, Mexico
3
Programa Investigadoras e Investigadores por México SECIHTI, Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo A.C., Carretera a Eldorado Km. 5.5, Col Campo El Diez, Culiacán 80110, Sinaloa, Mexico
4
Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Culiacán 80019, Sinaloa, Mexico
5
Posgrado en Ciencias de la Nutrición y Alimentos Medicinales, Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa, Av. Cedros S/N y Calle Sauces, Los Sauces, Fracc. Los Fresnos, Culiacán 80019, Sinaloa, Mexico
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Beverages 2025, 11(4), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11040112
Submission received: 8 June 2025 / Revised: 2 July 2025 / Accepted: 17 July 2025 / Published: 4 August 2025
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Abstract

The demand for functional beverages is increasing as consumers seek options that offer health benefits, and plant-based beverages are gaining popularity for their associated advantages. The objective of this study was to optimize the formulation of a chickpea and hibiscus beverage to maximize flavor sensory acceptance, antioxidant capacity, and anthocyanin content using a mixture design and characterize the optimal formulation. An extreme vertices mixture design was employed, with fixed proportions of chickpea beverage (66.5%) and inulin (2%), while varying the proportions of hibiscus decoction, monk fruit, and cinnamon powder. Additionally, the Kano model was used to classify the beverage’s attributes. The optimized formulation consisted of 31.41% hibiscus decoction, 0.48% monk fruit, and 0.61% cinnamon powder, achieving 329.2 µmol TE/100 mL (antioxidant capacity), 3.567 mg C3GE/100 mL (anthocyanin content), and a flavor rating of 6.2. The Kano model classified good taste, functional properties, monk fruit sweetening, and chickpeas as attractive attributes, with functional properties obtaining the highest satisfaction index (0.88). These results demonstrate that employing a mixture design is an effective tool to enhance health-related aspects and consumer acceptance. Additionally, the incorporation of the Kano model provides a broader perspective on the development of functional beverages by identifying key attributes that influence product acceptance and market success.

1. Introduction

Functional foods (FFs) provide benefits beyond basic nutrition, promoting well-being and potentially reducing disease risk through bioactive compounds and beneficial components. A wide variety of FF exists, including dairy products, cereals, candies, and beverages, among others [1,2]. In this sense, functional beverages (FBs) offer additional health benefits and advantages over other foods. In addition to their convenience, portability, and high preference [3], their liquid form facilitates consumption, allowing for controlled intake and easy integration into the daily diet [4,5]. This contributes to functional nutrition without displacing the balanced intake of essential macronutrients [6,7]. FBs are a rapidly growing category, as their characteristics align with consumer demands and function as a valuable source of bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols, fiber, and probiotics [8,9,10]. To guarantee the market success of FFs, it is important that they have sensory attributes accepted by consumers. Therefore, evaluating acceptability is essential, with particular emphasis on flavor attribute, which plays a key role in consumer preference and product adoption [10,11,12,13,14].
Within the category of beverages, plant-based beverages used as dairy alternatives are obtained by processing plant materials such as legumes. Then, they are homogenized to reduce particle size, achieving an appearance similar to that of milk [15]. Dairy alternatives hold a significant place in the beverage market, with legumes being a primary option for producing dairy substitutes. Additionally, legumes can serve as functional ingredients for the development of foods with enhanced health benefits [16,17,18]. Soybean is the main ingredient used in dairy alternative production; however, due to health concerns, other legume options have been explored for their development [16,19]. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is among the most promising legumes for dairy alternative production due to its nutritional profile, which is comparable to soy milk, mild flavor, and high compatibility with other ingredients [20,21]. One of the key challenges in achieving consumer acceptance of plant-based beverages is enhancing their sensory attributes, which can be addressed by optimizing processing methods, incorporating functional ingredients, and masking undesirable flavors [17]. Among the main ingredients with potential health benefits are the calyces of hibiscus (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.), which contain significant amounts of bioactive compounds, as their content has been correlated with antioxidant capacity (AC) [22,23,24]. Among the polyphenols present in hibiscus, anthocyanins are highly relevant due to their antioxidant properties and have been associated with various health benefits [23,25,26]. These characteristics position hibiscus as a promising ingredient for the formulation of FBs. Another ingredient, cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum), in addition to being recognized as a flavoring and aromatic agent in foods, is also known for its high AC, potentially providing additional health benefits [27,28,29]. Monk fruit has been widely used as a non-caloric sweetener, broadening its application in FBs. The bioactive mogrosides found in monk fruit are responsible for its intense sweetness and have been extensively associated with AC [30,31,32,33,34]. Likewise, inulin has gained attention not only for its health benefits but also for its ability to enhance the sensory properties of foods, facilitating the development of FFs. Inulin is a linear fructan consisting of oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, resistant to digestive enzymes but fermented by beneficial bacteria in the colon [35,36,37]. The use of these ingredients in beverage development may result in a positive balance between functional properties and flavor acceptability, addressing the growing demand for both functional and plant-based beverages.
To achieve an optimal balance between ingredients and the response variables in food and beverage systems, it is necessary to implement an appropriate experimental design. Mixture designs are distinguished by responses that depend on the relative composition of the mixture rather than its total quantity. A fundamental principle of these designs is that the sum of the component (or ingredients in a mixture) proportions must always equal 100%. This methodology is widely applied in the formulation of FFs and FBs [38,39], primarily to optimize health-related properties and sensory acceptability [38,40,41].
Consumers play a crucial role in the development of food and beverage products; therefore, understanding their needs and expectations is essential. The Kano model is a tool applied through a structured questionnaire to categorize and identify consumer or customer needs and requirements. Additionally, it identifies the influence of product characteristics on consumer satisfaction. The model classifies the needs or requirements into five categories: must-have, one-dimensional, attractive, indifferent, and reverse [42,43]. The Kano model, a structured analytical tool, employs questionnaires to systematically classify and identify consumer needs and preferences while assessing the impact of product attributes on overall satisfaction. This model has been used in beverage research and development, emphasizing the importance of ingredient selection in formulation, the incorporation of health-promoting ingredients, sensory attributes, and enrichment with antioxidants and vitamins [44,45].
The present study aimed to optimize and characterize the formulation of a chickpea and hibiscus beverage. This was achieved by first optimizing its formulation by employing a mixture design to maximize flavor sensory acceptance, AC, and anthocyanin content. Second, the optimized beverage was evaluated in terms of its nutritional profile, sensory acceptance, and the classification of its attributes using the Kano model.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Reagents and Standards

2,2′-Azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS), potassium persulfate, 2,2′-azobis(2-amidino-propane) dihydrochloride (AAPH), fluorescein, 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2 carboxylic acid (Trolox), 2,4,6-Tri-(2-pyridyl)-s-triazine (TPTZ), Folin–Ciocalteu reagent, and cyanidin-3-glucoside standard were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA).

2.2. Raw Materials

Chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.), hibiscus (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) calyces, agave inulin (NBF®), monk fruit (Siraitia grosvenorii), and cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) powder were purchased from a supermarket in Culiacan, Sinaloa, Mexico.

2.3. Beverage Formulation

The beverage was composed of five components: chickpea-based beverage (CBB), hibiscus decoction (HD), cinnamon powder, agave inulin, and monk fruit. Preliminary trials were conducted based on the literature sources to obtain the CBB [21,46,47] and the HD [48,49]. To prepare the CBB, chickpeas were first rinsed and soaked in purified water at a 1:5 weight/volume ratio (w/v) for 18 h at 20 °C. After soaking, the water was discarded, and the chickpeas were boiled in purified water at a 1:10 (w/v) ratio in a pressure cooker for 30 min. The cooking water was discarded before the chickpeas were blended with purified water at a 1:5 (w/v) ratio using a blender (T-Fal, Medellín, Colombia) at maximum speed for 5 min. For the HD, the calyces were mixed with purified water at a 0.075:1 w/v and heated to 100 °C for 10 min. The calyces were then separated from the decoction, which was subsequently cooled until reaching 20 °C.
Preliminary trials were conducted to determine the proportions and ranges of the ingredients, as well as to optimize the beverage preparation process. Briefly, all ingredients were homogenized for 5 min using the previously described blender, then pasteurized by heating to 72 ± 2 °C for 15 s and subsequently cooled in an ice water bath [50,51]. The beverage was then transferred to pre-sterilized glass jars and stored at 4 °C until use. The general preparation process is illustrated in Figure 1.

2.4. Antioxidant Capacity Assays

To optimize the beverage, its antioxidant capacity was evaluated using the Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (TEAC). Additionally, the antioxidant capacity of the optimized beverage was assessed through the ion reduction capacity by ferric ion-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assays. All analyses were conducted in triplicate (n = 3).
To perform the antioxidant capacity assays, the beverage was centrifuged at 10,000× g for 15 min at 4 °C (Hermle Z 36 HK; Labortechnik, Wehingen, Baden-Wurtemberg, Germany), and the supernatant was recovered. Except for ORAC, in all assays, the supernatant was diluted using distilled water, which was also used as the blank. A 96-well microplate with a transparent bottom and walls was utilized, and the results were compared to a standard Trolox curve with concentrations ranging from 0 to 1000 µM. Absorbance of all assay readings was performed using a Synergy HT microplate reader (BioTek, Inc., Winooski, VT, USA). The results were expressed as micromoles of Trolox equivalent per 100 mL of beverage (µmol TE/100 mL).

2.4.1. Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (TEAC)

The methodology described by Thaipong, Boonprakob [52] was followed. Briefly, the reaction solution was prepared by homogenizing equal volumes of 2.6 mM potassium persulfate and 7.4 mM ABTS, followed by incubation at room temperature for 16 h to generate the ABTS*+ radical. To standardize the reaction solution, 100 µL of the ABTS*+ solution was diluted with 2900 µL of methanol to achieve an absorbance of 0.700 ± 0.01 nm. A total of 10 µL of the dilution, blank, or Trolox curve was added to 190 µL of the ABTS*+ reaction solution and incubated in the dark at room temperature for 2 h. Absorbance was measured at 734 nm.

2.4.2. Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power Assay (FRAP)

This assay was determined according to the methodology described by Benzie and Strain [53]. The FRAP reagent was prepared by homogenizing 30 mM TPTZ, 60 mM ferric chloride hexahydrate and acetate buffer (1:1:10 v/v), and 30 µL of diluted beverage, blank, or Trolox curve. A total of 110 µL of the FRAP reagent was mixed and incubated in the dark for 5 min, and absorbance was measured at 590 nm.

2.4.3. The Antioxidant Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC)

The assay was performed following the methodology of Huang, Ou [54]. The supernatant was diluted at a 1:100 ratio with 75 mM phosphate buffer. In a 96-well microplate with a transparent bottom and black walls, 25 µL of the diluted sample, 25 µL of the phosphate buffer as a blank, and 25 µL of the Trolox curve were added. The microplate reader was set to 37 °C. The microplate reader dispensed 150 µL of 0.96 µM fluorescein and 50 µL of 95.8 µM AAPH, and fluorescence was measured at 70 s intervals for 70 min using 485 nm excitation and 580 nm emission wavelengths. Results were calculated by comparison to a Trolox standard curve with concentrations of 12.5, 25, 50, 75, and 100 µM.

2.5. Determination of the Total Content of Phenolic Groups

The beverage was centrifuged at 10,000× g for 15 min at 4 °C, and the supernatant was collected. Distilled water served as the blank for all assays, and absorbance readings were taken in a 96-well microplate (transparent bottom and walls) using a Synergy HT reader (BioTek, Winooski, VT, USA). All analyses were run in triplicate (n = 3). Total phenolic content was assessed following the Folin–Ciocalteu method [55], and the supernatant was diluted 1:2 with distilled water. In a microplate, 10 µL of this dilution, 230 µL of distilled water, and 10 µL of 2N Folin–Ciocalteu reagent were incubated for 3 min at 20 °C. Then, 25 µL of 4N sodium carbonate was added and incubated for 2 h. Absorbance was measured at 725 nm. A gallic acid curve (0–0.4 mg/mL) provided results in mg gallic acid equivalents per 100 mL (mg GAE/100 mL). Total flavonoid content was determined by the aluminum chloride method [56]; 10 µL of supernatant was mixed with 250 µL of distilled water, 10 µL of 10% AlCl3, and 10 µL of 1M potassium acetate, then incubated for 30 min in the dark at 20 °C. Absorbance was read at 415 nm. A quercetin curve (0–0.4 mg/mL) yielded results in mg quercetin equivalents per 100 mL (mg QE/100 mL). Total anthocyanin content was evaluated following Abdel-Aal and Hucl [57]; 200 µL of supernatant was placed in a microplate, and absorbance was measured at 535 nm. A cyanidin-3-glucoside curve (0–0.4 µg/mL) was used, and the results were expressed in µg cyanidin-3-glucoside equivalents per 100 mL (µg C3GE/100 mL).

2.6. Sensory Analysis

Sixty untrained volunteers (38 women, 22 men; 18–48 years) participated in four sensory sessions [58]. They were recruited online, provided electronic informed consent, and declared they had no food allergies, ingredient intolerances, or conditions affecting sensory perception. Participants were students and staff from the medical and nutrition programs at the Autonomous University of Sinaloa (UAS) in Culiacán, Mexico. Evaluations took place in a laboratory at the School of Medicine under controlled lighting and temperature. Each session began with instructions for sensory evaluation. Panelists analyzed three beverage samples (20 mL each) per day in a randomized order, served in transparent cups coded with three digits. Between samples, they rinsed with water and consumed unsalted crackers to reduce carryover effects. Flavor, color, aroma, texture, and overall acceptability were rated on a 10 cm unstructured scale, anchored with “dislike very much” and “like very much” [59,60].

2.7. Beverage Optimization

The beverage components, CBB (66.5%) and inulin (2%), were fixed, comprising 68.5% of the total beverage formulation. The remaining ingredients were defined as process variables and restricted within the following limits: HD (30–31.3%), cinnamon powder (0.1–1%), and monk fruit (0.1–0.5%). The extreme vertices mixture design is detailed in Table 1.
A regression coefficient (R2) > 0.8 and a statistically significant model (p < 0.05) were considered for the model validation. The optimal formulation was determined by developing an overlay plot [61], considering sensory flavor ratings, antioxidant capacity measured by the Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (TEAC) assay, and anthocyanin content as response variables to maximize these attributes. To validate the model, the optimal proportions obtained from the overlay plot were replicated 15 times. The results were analyzed using a one-sample t-test to compare them with the values predicted by the model. The statistical analyses were conducted using Minitab version 19 software (State College, PA, USA).

2.8. Nutritional Content

Moisture, ash, crude protein (N × 6.25), fat, and total dietary fiber (Megayzyme total dietary fiber assay procedure) were measured according to the methodology of AOAC [62]. Available carbohydrate content was calculated as a difference, where % available carbohydrates = 100% − (%moisture + %ash + %protein + %fat + %total fiber). Soluble sugars (glucose, fructose, and sucrose) were measured using the Sucrose/D-Fructose/D-Glucose Megazyme enzymatic kit (Bray, Business Park, Bray, Co., Wicklow, Ireland) following the manufacturer’s instructions [63]. The sum of glucose, fructose, and sucrose represented the total sugars. The total starch content was determined according to the methodology of AOAC (Method 996.11) using thermostable α-amylase and amyloglucosidase from Megazyme® (Bray, Co., Wicklow, Ireland). The mineral content (K+ and Na+) was quantified via atomic absorption spectrometry (AA FS flame AA 280FS + SIPS 20, Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) according to the AOAC official methods [62].

2.9. Kano Model

A positive–negative questionnaire [42,64] was administered in person to 60 participants who performed the sensory analysis. The assessed Kano model attributes included good flavor, presence of natural sediment, functional properties (e.g., antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects), use of monk fruit as a sweetener, and inclusion of chickpea as a plant-based ingredient. Questionnaire responses were combined with importance ratings to classify consumer needs (must-have, one-dimensional, attractive, indifferent, or reverse), based on the highest corresponding score [42]. Subsequently, the satisfaction (better) and dissatisfaction (worse) coefficients were calculated [42,43]. The Satisfaction Index (SI) indicates the level of satisfaction when a requirement is fulfilled, with values ranging from 1 (high) to 0 (low). The Dissatisfaction Index (DI) reflects the degree of dissatisfaction when a requirement is not fulfilled. These indices are calculated as follows:
SI = (A + O)/(A + O + M + I)
DI = (−1) (O + M)/(A + O + M+ I)
where A represents the number of attractive attributes, O denotes the one-dimensional attributes, M denotes the must-have attributes, and I denotes the indifferent attributes.

2.10. Statistical Analysis

For optimization, response surface methodology with a mixture design was applied using Minitab 19 (State College, PA, USA). Data normality was assessed using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. According to data distribution, variables are reported as means ± standard deviations or medians with interquartile ranges. Group comparisons were made using one-way ANOVA or the Kruskal–Wallis test, followed by Tukey’s or Dunn’s post hoc tests, as appropriate. GraphPad Prism 8.01 (GraphPad Software, San Diego, CA, USA) was employed for these analyses. The reliability of the Kano model questionnaire was assessed by calculating the Cronbach’s alpha with PASW Statistics 25.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) to evaluate the Kano model questionnaire’s reliability. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.

2.11. Ethics Declaration

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the School of Medicine at the Autonomous University of Sinaloa, under approval number CEI-FM-PI-2025-001. All research procedures were conducted under ethical standards and institutional guidelines. Before participation, all individuals received detailed information about the study objectives, procedures, potential risks, and benefits. Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. Confidentiality and anonymity of personal data were fully guaranteed throughout the research process.

3. Results

3.1. Beverage Optimization

The results of the experimental runs are summarized in Table 1. The analysis revealed that the predictive model for the sensory attribute of flavor was linear and statistically significant (p < 0.05). For TEAC (AC), a significant quadratic model (p < 0.05) was identified, specifically in the interaction between the hibiscus decoction and monk fruit. Regarding the anthocyanin content, the fitted model was also quadratic and significant (p < 0.05), with relevant interaction terms, including hibiscus decoction with cinnamon powder and hibiscus decoction with monk fruit. All models presented coefficients of determination (R2) greater than 0.85, indicating a good fit to the experimental data.
Figure 2 shows the experimental region and the contour plots for each response variable: The simplex design plot (Figure 2a) shows the distribution of experimental points within the mixture design; the contour plot of sensory acceptance of flavor (Figure 2b) indicates that monk fruit contributes positively to enhancing the flavor acceptance of the beverage; the contour plot of TEAC (Figure 2c) demonstrates that the hibiscus decoction is the main contributor to the AC; the contour plot of anthocyanin content confirms the hibiscus decoction serves as the primary source of anthocyanins (Figure 2d). The overlay plot (Figure 2e) highlights a white area within the experimental region that satisfies the optimal proportions for all target responses. The marked region was identified as optimal, with proportions of 31.41% HD, 0.61% cinnamon powder, and 0.48% monk fruit. To validate the model, experimental replicates (n = 15) were performed using the predicted optimal formulation. The observed values fell within the confidence interval according to the one-sample t-test, confirming the validity of the predictive model (Table 2).

3.2. Optimized Beverage Characterization

The AC of the optimized beverage formulation was evaluated using two complementary in vitro assays. The FRAP assay yielded a value of 142 ± 0.04 µmol TE/100 mL, while the ORAC assay showed a value of 831 ± 71.5 µmol TE/100 mL. The total phenolic content was determined to be 29 ± 3 mg GAE/100 mL, while the flavonoid content was 8.3 ± 1.1 mg QE/100 mL, and the anthocyanin content was 3567 ± 93 µg C3GE/100 mL. Table 3 shows the results of the proximal composition analysis of the beverage. The K+ content was 13.8 ± 3.58 mg/100 mL, while the Na+ content was 8.59 ± 1.1 mg/100 mL of the beverage.

3.3. Sensory Analysis

The sensory evaluation results (Figure 3) indicate that aroma exhibited the highest score (7.55 ± 3.3), closely followed by color (7.50 ± 2.7 cm) (p > 0.05). Flavor registered the lowest score (6.20 ± 2.7), being significantly lower (p < 0.05) than both aroma and color. Regarding texture (7.45 ± 3.1 cm) and overall acceptability (6.70 ± 2.2 cm), no significant differences were exhibited compared to any other sensory attributes (p > 0.05). Importantly, all attributes were scored above the midpoint (5 cm) of the scale, suggesting a generally favorable acceptance of the optimized beverage (Figure 3).

3.4. Kano Model

The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.96, indicating high internal consistency and good reliability of the questionnaire responses [42,65]. The attributes “good flavor,” “functional properties,” and “sweetened with monk fruit” were categorized as attractive attributes. The use of chickpeas as an ingredient for a plant-based beverage was classified as both attractive and indifferent; however, according to the priority order [66], it was ultimately considered an attractive attribute. In the satisfaction coefficient analysis, the attribute “functional properties” showed the highest values for both the SI and the DI, suggesting that it contributes most strongly to consumer satisfaction when present and generates the greatest dissatisfaction when absent (Table 4).

4. Discussion

The mixture design has been employed in other studies aimed at maximizing AC, anthocyanin content, and sensory acceptance [67,68,69,70]. This approach acknowledges that a beverage’s characteristics depend on its components and their interactions [71]. In the present formulation, cinnamon, chickpea, inulin, monk fruit, and hibiscus each supply bioactive compounds with antioxidant capacity [12,72,73,74,75,76]. Notably, the simultaneous incorporation of the prebiotic fiber inulin and the natural sweetener monk fruit represents an innovative strategy in plant-based beverages, combining microbiota-supporting potential with calorie-free sweetness, thereby enhancing both functional and sensory appeal. Additionally, the anthocyanins provided by hibiscus may act as electrons on hydrogen atom donors, thereby contributing to the beverage’s AC [76]. The AC of the optimized beverage yielded distinct values depending on the assay used. It is important to note that the assays are based on different underlying mechanisms: single electron transfer (SET), as in the FRAP assay; hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), as in the ORAC assay; and a combination of both mechanisms (SET/HAT), as in the TEAC assay [55,77,78]. The TEAC assay offers several advantages, including applicability over a wide pH range, simplicity, reproducibility, and suitability for both hydrophilic and lipophilic compounds [78,79,80]. However, it should be noted that the AC values may have been negatively affected by the pasteurization process [12,81].
The HD content contributed significantly to the total anthocyanin content in the optimized beverage (Table 2), as anthocyanins are the predominant bioactive compounds in hibiscus, and their concentration is directly related to the hibiscus content [12,82]. The anthocyanin content, total phenolic content, and total flavonoids are known to be affected by the processing method [83]. Similarly, the AC may have decreased due to the pasteurization process [12,81]. However, according to Salar, Periago [84], on day 0, a citrus maqui beverage exhibited higher anthocyanin and flavanone contents when pasteurized at 85 °C for 15 s compared to a non-thermal treatment, such as high hydrostatic pressure. Additionally, pH-related stability may have influenced the anthocyanin and total phenolic compound contents since anthocyanins are more stable under acidic conditions than total phenolic compounds in general [85]. Furthermore, although boiling is one method for extracting polyphenols from chickpeas [73], the water used in this process was replaced with purified water in the chickpea beverage formulation because boiling water can also leach compounds from chickpeas that could negatively affect consumer acceptance [16,86].
The soluble fiber content obtained using the employed AOAC methodology could have been underestimated because inulin is soluble in 70% to 80% ethanol, which hinders its detection through standard AOAC fiber analysis methods. Similarly, other polysaccharides that might be present in beverage ingredients, such as other fructans and certain arabinogalactans provided by chickpeas and hibiscus plants, might not have been quantified by the methodology used [87]. This unquantified fraction likely accounts for the ~2.3 g/100 mL difference observed when summing the analyzed components, thus explaining why they do not add up to 100% in Table 3. Additionally, this percentage is similar to the amount of inulin added to the formulation of the optimal beverage.
Flavor is an important attribute in the selection of FFs [88]. Consistent with our Kano model findings, “good flavor” was classified as an attractive attribute (Table 4). Although the use of legumes is often associated with unpleasant flavors in plant-based beverages [15], the flavor rating was above the midpoint of the scale (Figure 3), suggesting acceptable sensory quality. Processing techniques used in the preparation of chickpea beverages, such as cooking or flavor-masking strategies [15,46], may have contributed to flavor perception. Moreover, chickpeas were considered an attractive attribute according to the Kano model (Table 4), reinforcing their potential as a key ingredient in formulating the optimal plant-based beverage. In the study conducted by Delpino et al. [26], a beverage composed of chickpea extract and araticum pulp in a 60:40 ratio achieves higher scores for both color and flavor; this proportion of chickpea is similar to the 66.5% used in the present study. Among natural sweeteners, monk fruit, used at 0.48% in the optimized formulation, is considered highly attractive; however, it may negatively influence flavor, as it is associated with unpleasant tastes. Even so, the use of natural sweeteners remains viable when these undesirable notes are effectively masked or balanced by other ingredients [89,90]. The flavor rating and overall acceptability (Figure 3) indicate that the formulation achieved this balance, as both values exceeded the midpoint of the hedonic scale. Although in certain beverages the use of a sweetener may not be the most important attribute [90], the use of monk fruit as a sweetener was perceived as an important attribute, receiving the second-highest SI (0.56) and DI (0.22) from the participants in the Kano model. This highlights its potential in plant-based beverages.
The optimized beverage contains no added sugars, a factor that may reduce its viscosity and, consequently, affect the perceived texture [71]. Sedimentation in plant-based beverages is considered an undesirable characteristic and therefore plays an important role in sensory acceptance [91]. Nevertheless, texture (Figure 3) was one of the highest-rated attributes (7.45), which can be attributed to the inclusion of 2% inulin, as it provides desirable textural properties and appearance, minimizes sedimentation, and enhances sensory acceptability [71,92]. In contrast, the Kano model classified the attribute “presence of natural sediments in the beverage” as indifferent, with an SI of 0.36 and a DI of 0.11. The anthocyanin from hibiscus may be responsible for imparting the attractive color of the beverage [93,94], as it was the second-highest rated attribute (7.5). Cinnamon can elicit both positive [95,96] and negative sensory responses [97]; however, at 0.61% in this formulation, aroma achieved the highest-rated attribute (7.55), positively influencing consumer interest [98]. Overall acceptability of the optimized beverage did not differ significantly from individual sensory attributes, indicating a well-balanced profile. Consumers are increasingly seeking functional characteristics in beverages, as well as the presence of bioactive compounds such as antioxidants and prebiotics [9,15]. This trend was reflected in the results of the Kano model, where “functional properties” were classified as an important attribute, obtaining the highest SI (0.88) and DI (0.33). There is a growing demand for plant-based beverages and beverages containing plant extracts and bioactive compounds with potential health benefits, such as antioxidant properties [10]. Among the limitations of the present study, it is recommended to perform a shelf-life study to characterize the degradation kinetics of anthocyanins and AC under different storage and packaging conditions. It is also suggested to increase the number of evaluators in the sensory analysis so that the sample is more representative of the target population, which would yield even more precise results.

5. Conclusions

The optimized formulation developed through the mixture design simultaneously maximized antioxidant capacity, anthocyanin content, and sensory acceptance, demonstrating that the synergy among hibiscus, chickpea, inulin, cinnamon, and monk fruit yields a balanced functional and organoleptic profile. The application of the Kano model and the high SI for the attributes “good flavor,” “functional properties,” and “sweetened with monk fruit” confirms that the product aligns with consumer expectations. Moreover, the absence of added sugars and the presence of prebiotic fiber position the beverage within current health and wellness trends. The levels of bioactive compounds achieved may qualify the product for regulatory claims in different countries and regions worldwide, such as “source of fiber” or “high in antioxidants,” reinforcing its commercial viability and relevance as an innovative plant-based beverage alternative.

6. Future Perspectives

Looking ahead, it is essential to conduct in vivo and clinical studies to confirm potential health benefits, such as effects on blood pressure and gut microbiota. In parallel, it is recommended to conduct a techno-economic and scale-up analysis to evaluate the availability of critical inputs (hibiscus, inulin, monk fruit) and their compatibility with industrial operations such as HTST (high-temperature short-time) processing. These research lines will strengthen the evidence and industrial feasibility, setting the stage for future functional claims and the successful market introduction of this beverage.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.L.-C.; formal analysis, F.L.-C. and L.A.C.-B.; investigation, F.L.-C., N.L.-L., R.V.d.l.R. and J.C.-B.; project administration, F.I.C.-T. and J.B.H.; resources, F.I.C.-T. and J.B.H.; supervision, N.L.-L. and E.P.G.-G.; visualization, F.L.-C.; writing—original draft, F.L.-C.; writing—review and editing, F.I.C.-T. and J.B.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the School of Medicine at the Autonomous University of Sinaloa (protocol code CEI-FM-PI-2025-001 on 13 February 2025).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. Written informed consent has been obtained from the patients to publish this paper.

Data Availability Statement

Data is contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments to students Miriam D. García-Cebreros, Hilda L. Ontiveros-Luna, and Luis J. Ochoa-García for their support in conducting the sensory analyses.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

°CDegrees Celsius
nmNanometer
mLMilliliter
µMMicromolar
µLMicroliter
NNormality
cmCentimeter
pHHydrogen potential
K+Potassium
Na+Sodium
minMinutes
hHours
sSeconds

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Figure 1. The general process for beverage preparation: (a) Preparation of chickpea-based beverage (CBB); (b) Hibiscus decoction (HD); (c) Final beverage formulation. PW: purified water; HC: hibiscus calyces.
Figure 1. The general process for beverage preparation: (a) Preparation of chickpea-based beverage (CBB); (b) Hibiscus decoction (HD); (c) Final beverage formulation. PW: purified water; HC: hibiscus calyces.
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Figure 2. Mixture design and contour plots for beverage optimization: (a) Simplex design plot; (b) Mixture contour plot of sensory acceptance of flavor; (c) Mixture contour plot of antioxidant capacity (TEAC assay); (d) Mixture contour plot of anthocyanin content; (e) Contour plot overlay.
Figure 2. Mixture design and contour plots for beverage optimization: (a) Simplex design plot; (b) Mixture contour plot of sensory acceptance of flavor; (c) Mixture contour plot of antioxidant capacity (TEAC assay); (d) Mixture contour plot of anthocyanin content; (e) Contour plot overlay.
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Figure 3. Sensory attributes of the optimized beverage. Results are presented as median ± interquartile range based on a 10 cm hedonic scale.
Figure 3. Sensory attributes of the optimized beverage. Results are presented as median ± interquartile range based on a 10 cm hedonic scale.
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Table 1. Extreme vertices for a three-component mixture design (hibiscus decoction, cinnamon powder, and monk fruit) and their corresponding responses.
Table 1. Extreme vertices for a three-component mixture design (hibiscus decoction, cinnamon powder, and monk fruit) and their corresponding responses.
Run
Order		Process VariablesResponse Variables
HD (%)Cinnamon Powder (%)Monk Fruit (%)Sensory
Acceptance of
Flavor 1		TEAC 2
(µmol TE/100 mL)		Anthocyanin
Content 2 (µgC3GE/100 mL)
131.01250.3250.16254.3 ± 2281 ± 363192 ± 113
23010.56.1 ± 2.1316 ± 393162 ± 34
331.350.10.053.6 ± 2.8177 ± 162838 ± 120
430.90.10.55.9 ± 2.3286 ± 252716 ± 16
530.56250.7750.16255.0 ± 2.5315 ± 193095 ± 73
630.4510.053.9 ± 2.3282 ± 232738 ± 67
730.78750.3250.38755.8 ± 2.1303 ± 193192 ± 52
830.67500.5500.27505.1 ± 2.5354 ± 293514 ± 122
930.33750.7750.38756 ± 1.9315 ± 203174 ± 57
1 The results are presented as means ± standard deviation (n = 60). 2 The results are presented as means ± standard deviation (n = 3). HD: hibiscus decoction; TEAC: Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity. µmol TE/100 mL: micromoles of Trolox equivalent per 100 mL of beverage; µgEC3G/100 mL: micrograms equivalent of cyanidin-3-glucoside per 100 mL of beverage.
Table 2. Comparison of the predicted values and experimental values, and validation of the model.
Table 2. Comparison of the predicted values and experimental values, and validation of the model.
VariablePredicted Value 1,*95% CIExperimental Value 2,* p
Sensory acceptance of flavor6.11(5.5, 6.6)6.2p > 0.05
TEAC (µmol TE/100 mL)349.2(301.9, 356.5)329.2p > 0.05
Anthocyanin content (µgC3GE/100 mL)3610.7(3515.6, 3618.4)3567p > 0.05
1 Values of the contour plot overlay method. 2 Results of 15 replicates. * The results are presented as means. 95% CI: Confidence Interval. p: statistical significance (p < 0.05). TEAC: Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity. µmol TE/100 mL: micromole of Trolox equivalent per 100 mL of beverage; µg C3GE/100 mL: micrograms equivalent of cyanidin-3-glucoside per 100 mL of beverage. Differences between predicted and experimental values were analyzed using the Student’s t-test, with a 95% confidence level (α = 0.05).
Table 3. Nutritional content of the optimized beverage.
Table 3. Nutritional content of the optimized beverage.
ComponentContent
(g/100 g of Beverage)
Moisture93.15 ± 0.1
Ash0.189 ± 0.004
Crude protein0.92 ± 0.01
Fat0.16 ± 0.04
Insoluble dietary fiber0.73 ± 0.14
Soluble dietary fiber0.49 ± 0.09
Available carbohydrates (By difference)4.36
Total starch1.72 ± 0.01
Glucose0.10 ± 0.01
Fructose0.12 ± 0.01
Sucrose0.11 ± 0.006
Results are presented as mean ± standard deviation.
Table 4. Results of the Kano model and satisfaction coefficient.
Table 4. Results of the Kano model and satisfaction coefficient.
AttributesAOMIRQCategorySIDI
Good flavor27422511A0.530.10
Functional proprieties37162500A0.880.30
Sweetened with monk fruit26571441A0.560.22
Chickpeas as an ingredient for plant-based beverages26312640A *0.520.07
Presence of natural sediments in the beverage142326123I0.360.11
A: Attractive. O: One-dimensional. M: Must be. I: indifferent. R: Reverse. Q: Questionable. SI: Satisfaction index. DI: Dissatisfaction index. * according to priority A > I.
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MDPI and ACS Style

López-Cardoso, F.; Leyva-López, N.; Gutiérrez-Grijalva, E.P.; de la Rocha, R.V.; Cabanillas-Bojórquez, L.A.; Camberos-Barraza, J.; Cárdenas-Torres, F.I.; Heredia, J.B. Mixture Design and Kano Model for a Functional Chickpea and Hibiscus Beverage. Beverages 2025, 11, 112. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11040112

AMA Style

López-Cardoso F, Leyva-López N, Gutiérrez-Grijalva EP, de la Rocha RV, Cabanillas-Bojórquez LA, Camberos-Barraza J, Cárdenas-Torres FI, Heredia JB. Mixture Design and Kano Model for a Functional Chickpea and Hibiscus Beverage. Beverages. 2025; 11(4):112. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11040112

Chicago/Turabian Style

López-Cardoso, Fernando, Nayely Leyva-López, Erick Paul Gutiérrez-Grijalva, Rosabel Vélez de la Rocha, Luis Angel Cabanillas-Bojórquez, Josué Camberos-Barraza, Feliznando Isidro Cárdenas-Torres, and José Basilio Heredia. 2025. "Mixture Design and Kano Model for a Functional Chickpea and Hibiscus Beverage" Beverages 11, no. 4: 112. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11040112

APA Style

López-Cardoso, F., Leyva-López, N., Gutiérrez-Grijalva, E. P., de la Rocha, R. V., Cabanillas-Bojórquez, L. A., Camberos-Barraza, J., Cárdenas-Torres, F. I., & Heredia, J. B. (2025). Mixture Design and Kano Model for a Functional Chickpea and Hibiscus Beverage. Beverages, 11(4), 112. https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages11040112

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