Spatiotemporal Variations in Snow and Soil Frost—A Review of Measurement Techniques
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Measurement Techniques
2.1. Snow Processes and Parameters and Associated Common Methodological Problems
2.2. Dielectrical and Electrical Techniques
2.2.1. LiDAR
2.2.2. Radar Systems
2.2.3. TDR
2.2.4. Additional Electrical Techniques
2.3. Temperature Based Techniques
2.4. Tracer Techniques
2.5. Techniques Focusing on Snow Parameters
2.5.1. Snow Precipitation
2.5.2. Snow Depth
2.5.3. Snow Water Equivalent (SWE)
2.5.4. SWE with Additional Snow Parameters
2.5.5. Snow Layering
2.5.6. Liquid Water Content
2.5.7. Melt Water Collection and Separation
2.5.8. Forest Snow Parameters
2.6. Techniques Focusing on Soil and Groundwater Parameters
3. Summary and Future Recommendation on Measurement Techniques
- Electronic sensing system using acoustics, stationary upward mounted radars or low impedance band for temporal information about snow (LWC, SWE and layers).
- Mobile radars with different designs for spatial information about snow (LWC, SWE and layers) and soil (frost depth, water content, and thawing depth).
- Permeable weighing sensor for temporal variations in SWE.
- Natural or artificial tracers and Self-potential for flow paths in snow.
- TDR and Low-Frequency impedance sensor measurements for LWC in snow and soil.
- Neutron methods for total (liquid and frozen) water in soils.
- Fiber optics, thermistor strings or coated iButtons for temperature.
- Frost tubes for frost depth.
- Lysimeters designed for the study and SPC samplers to measure snowmelt.
- LiDAR to identify likely locations for focused infiltration.
- If precipitation gauges are used to measure snowfall, is it important to use a suitable design or to correct for wind losses.
4. Recommendation for Future Collaborative Research
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Method | Obs. Area * | Additional Snow Parameters | Refs |
---|---|---|---|
Snow pillows | |||
Bladders or Steel containers | ≈3–10 m2 | - | [200,259] |
Electronic weighing devices | |||
Impermeable Johnson | ≈10 m2 | - | [198,260] |
Permeable Johnson | ≈1.5–9 m2 | - | [203] |
Permeable Moen 2525 | ≈25 m2 | - | [55] |
Gamma radiation attenuation techniques | |||
Artificial source | Point | - | [204] |
Natural ground | ≈75 m2 | - | [55,208,209] |
Natural cosmic | ≈75 m2 | - | [211,212,213,214] 2015, Hydroinnova |
Stationary up-ward looking radar techniques | |||
Single frequency | Point | LWC, density, layers | [81,83,105,106] |
Step frequency | Point | LWC, density, layers | [107] |
Low Frequency Impedance Band (SnowPower) | ≈5–25 m | [218,261] | |
SAS2 Electronic sensing system using acoustics | <45 m3 | LWC, density, temp, layers | [216] |
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Lundberg, A.; Gustafsson, D.; Stumpp, C.; Kløve, B.; Feiccabrino, J. Spatiotemporal Variations in Snow and Soil Frost—A Review of Measurement Techniques. Hydrology 2016, 3, 28. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology3030028
Lundberg A, Gustafsson D, Stumpp C, Kløve B, Feiccabrino J. Spatiotemporal Variations in Snow and Soil Frost—A Review of Measurement Techniques. Hydrology. 2016; 3(3):28. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology3030028
Chicago/Turabian StyleLundberg, Angela, David Gustafsson, Christine Stumpp, Bjørn Kløve, and James Feiccabrino. 2016. "Spatiotemporal Variations in Snow and Soil Frost—A Review of Measurement Techniques" Hydrology 3, no. 3: 28. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology3030028