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Review

Aquatic Pollution in the Bay of Bengal: Impacts on Fisheries and Ecosystems

by
Nowrin Akter Shaika
1,2,
Saleha Khan
1,
Sadiqul Awal
3,
Md. Mahfuzul Haque
1,
Abul Bashar
4 and
Halis Simsek
2,*
1
Department of Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh
2
Department of Agricultural & Biological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
3
Department of Arts, Education & AgriTech, Melbourne Polytechnic, Epping, VIC 3076, Australia
4
Department of Aquaculture, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Hydrology 2025, 12(7), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology12070191
Submission received: 8 May 2025 / Revised: 7 July 2025 / Accepted: 8 July 2025 / Published: 11 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Surface Waters and Groundwaters)
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Abstract

Aquatic pollution in the Bay of Bengal has become a major environmental issue with long-term impacts on fisheries, biodiversity, and ecosystems. The review paper examines the major pathways, sources, and ecological consequences of aquatic pollution in the Bay of Bengal. Pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, petroleum hydrocarbons, and microplastics have been reported at concerning levels in the soil and water in aquatic ecosystems. Rivers act as key routes, transporting pollutants from inland sources to the Bay of Bengal. These contaminants disrupt metabolic and physiological functions in fish and other aquatic species and pose serious threats to food safety and public health through bioaccumulation. Harmful algal blooms (HABs), caused by nutrient enrichment, further exacerbate ecosystem degradation in the Bay of Bengal. The review highlights the immediate need for strengthened pollution control regulations, real-time water quality monitoring, sustainable farming practices, and community-based policy interventions to preserve biodiversity and safeguard fisheries.

1. Introduction

Globally, water is being increasingly polluted by both natural processes and anthropogenic activities, threatening human and planetary health continuously [1,2]. Since industrialization and food production have enjoyed significant development and intensification, various forms and quantities of pollutants are entering aquatic environments through industrial, household, and agricultural pathways at alarming rates. Studies reported that while European countries are treating most of their waste (88%) before discharging into the environment, South Asian countries are treating minimal waste (31%) [3]. As a result, in these countries, water quality has deteriorated, undermining ecosystem services and water-dependent livelihoods by an unprecedented depth and breadth.
According to the World Economic Forum, water pollution has been ranked as one of the top ten global risks over the past decades [4]. It was estimated that globally, 80% of municipal and industrial wastewater is discharged into the aquatic environment [5], causing ecosystem imbalance and human health threats. Moreover, a significant amount of chemicals used in agricultural land put pressure on both ground and surface water. For example, 38% of European waterbodies are at risk from agricultural pollutants, while Chinese agriculture is causing major nitrogen pollution in the aquatic environment [6]. Compared to developed countries, the Asian region produces more wastewater, equating to 144 km3 annually, which renders 50% of rivers highly polluted and 25% moderately polluted in the region [7]. Due to higher population density and a lack of sufficient waste management actions, Bangladesh is considered one of the most polluted countries, with an annual generation of more than 170 kg of household waste per capita in urban areas [8] and the amount is expected to be 434 kg by 2041 [9]. Moreover, industrial effluents, including those from garments and textiles, tanneries, and paper mills, are major sources of pollutants in Bangladesh, contributing to more than 60% of the national pollution [10]. Studies also found that 65,142 tons of pesticides were used in agricultural land, which significantly contributes to water pollution [11]. Since the outbreak of COVID-19, aquatic pollution has been elevated due to the increased use of masks and other personal protective equipment [12].
The Bay of Bengal, rich in aquatic biodiversity, contributes to economic development and nutrition security, supporting the lives of millions of people. Being interconnected with the Bay of Bengal, several large river systems carry untreated solid wastes, organic materials, heavy metals, pesticides, plastic materials, and other emerging pollutants from upper catchment areas. These pollutants not only lead to significant damage to marine ecosystems but also cause detrimental effects on aquatic biodiversity [13,14]. Triggering the pathogenic communities, pollutants in marine environments also cause disease outbreaks and mortality, which in turn, significantly affect the health and livelihood of dependent communities [15]. Among the pollutants, some cause rapid deterioration of water quality (eutrophication, oxygen depletion, etc.), while others have a long-term worsening capacity. For example, plastic materials, when discharged into the sea, are broken down into smaller micro sizes and cause long-term physical impacts on marine ecosystems, biological impairment to fish, mollusks, and crustaceans, and health consequences for consumers [16,17]. Studies have also reported that pollutants not only damage fishery yields but also create uncertainty in future productivity by affecting food availability, plankton dynamics, and water quality [18,19,20].
Considering the widespread and longer impacts of marine litter, several regional, national, and intergovernmental initiatives have been taken by the government to minimize the pollution burden in the Bay of Bengal and to accelerate UN SDG 14.1. Unfortunately, due to a lack of data availability, sufficient research, and coordination among public-private organizations, the government of Bangladesh has not progressed significantly. However, with the changing climate, nutrition security, and other socio-political issues, managing marine litter in the Bay of Bengal will remain a tougher challenge in the coming days. Therefore, at the heart of the necessity for action, it is urgent to know the level and source of aquatic pollution in the Bay of Bengal, demonstrating potential consequences and providing recommendations for action. To satisfy the gap in the current literature, the review article attempts to provide a detailed evaluation of the current pollution status in the Bay of Bengal, identifying major sources and their possible impact on fisheries and marine ecosystems.

2. Literature Review

A structured and targeted literature search was conducted in multiple databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, to select the relevant literature. Our search included keywords such as: “Bay of Bengal pollution”, “aquatic pollution”, “marine water contamination”, “contaminants in coastal waters”, “microplastics in marine environments”, “pesticide runoff”, “industrial effluents”, “agricultural discharge”, “aquaculture pollution”, and “harmful algal blooms (HABs)”. We prioritized peer-reviewed journal articles (research, review, perspective, etc.) published between 2000 and 2024, with particular attention to papers from the last decade. In addition, we included technical reports, policy documents, and grey literature from credible sources such as government agencies, international environmental organizations, and newspapers.
Studies were selected based on their relevance to the types, sources, and ecological or health effects of pollutants entering the Bay of Bengal. Preference was given to publications with a clear geographic focus on Bangladesh when identifying pollution sources and pathways, while also incorporating studies from eastern India, Myanmar, and the broader Bay of Bengal area to illustrate wider environmental and fisheries-related consequences. Publications that did not address pollution entering the Bay of Bengal or failed to demonstrate impacts on aquatic ecosystems, biodiversity, or fisheries were excluded from the review. The selected literature was organized thematically around pollution sources (industrial, agricultural, municipal, and aquacultural), types of contaminants (e.g., heavy metals, pesticides, microplastics, nutrients), and their known or reported impacts on marine life and public health.

3. Major Sources of Aquatic Pollution in Bangladesh

Water pollution has been a long-standing and widespread issue in Bangladesh, and its severity has intensified in recent years. Rapid urbanization has intensified industrial and domestic activities, leading to significant pollution challenges in urban and peri-urban areas [21]. Alongside these, agricultural practices also contribute notably to unplanned and indiscriminate waste disposal and water contamination (Figure 1).

3.1. Industrial Pollution

Industrialization did not accelerate quickly enough until the late 1970s in Bangladesh; however, in the 1990s, the growth was noteworthy, dominated initially by ready-made garments [22]. Due to the unplanned but gradual growth of industry, the aquatic environment has been seriously damaged and polluted. In Bangladesh, the most polluting industries are tanneries, textiles, pharmaceuticals, tobacco products, food products, machinery and equipment, medicinal chemicals, sugar, cement, paper and newsprint, chemicals, and chemical products [22]. The total number of textile industries registered between 2016 and 2017 was 4560. Approximately 2500 footwear-making units, 220 tanneries, and 90 large companies work in the leather industry [23]. Bangladesh Association of Pharmaceutical Industries (BAPI) and the Directorate General of Drug Administration (DGDA) estimated that about 257 licensed pharmaceutical manufacturers are operating in Bangladesh. A joint venture between the government of Bangladesh and foreign companies, Karnaphuli Fertilizer Company Limited (KAFCO), produces urea fertilizer and extra ammonia products for export [24]. Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation (BCIC) operates six urea fertilizer plants, one ammonium sulphate plant, and two diammonium phosphate plants.
As shown in Table 1, the tannery industry is the main source of heavy metals. In Bangladesh, most of the tanneries are located in the vicinity of the rivers and due to a lack of monitoring and regulation from the competent authorities, tannery wastes are discharged into rivers without any treatment [25]. A study conducted with 122 tanneries reported that 80% of chemicals used in the tanning process are discharged into the water, which accounts for 12,600 m3 of liquid waste per day [25]. On the other hand, the paper and pulp industry releases both organic and inorganic waste, while the textile industry is reported to account for 20% of water pollution globally [26]. Since most of these industries are located along rivers and streams, they regularly discharge untreated industrial wastes and effluents into these waterways.
Table 1. Chemical compounds recorded in different industrial waste by recent studies.
Table 1. Chemical compounds recorded in different industrial waste by recent studies.
PollutantsStudied Industries and AreasReferences
MicroplasticsDying, washing, pharmaceuticals, battery, and printing industries. [27]
Persistent organic pollutants, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, Polychlorinated biphenyl, Polychlorinated Naphthalenes, organochlorine pesticides, Chlorinated paraffins Landfills, industrial areas 1, mobile industry, agricultural lands, chemical industry, oil and fuel industry, and domestic sewage[28,29]
Suspended solidsTextiles, tannery, steel rerolling, construction materials, pharmaceuticals, food processing, pulp and paper, fertilizer, and basic chemicals industries[30,31]
Heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Cr, Cu, Ni, Co, Zn, Pb, and Cd)Tannery industry, ship-breaking industry, mobile industry, aquaculture ponds, agricultural lands, landfills, and industrial areas. [25,32,33,34,35]
Inorganic nutrient loading (NH4, NO2, NO3, PO4,)Tannery industry, agricultural runoff, aquaculture discharge, paper industry, and landfills[31]
1 Indicates areas harboring different types of industries rather than a specific industry.

3.2. Domestic and Municipal Wastes

Data indicated that over a 30-year span (1991–2021), solid waste production in Bangladesh increased dramatically by more than 500% with an expected figure of 142,322 metric tons in 2041 (Figure 2A). There is no wastewater treatment system in Bangladesh, so effluents from cities and human settlements enter the river systems directly and indirectly. Approximately 80% of Earth’s wastewater flows back to the environment without being reused or treated, whereas this figure tops 95% in some developing countries [36]. The polluting municipal wastes in developing countries like Bangladesh include raw and partially decomposed sewage, solid wastes, human excreta, and animal carcasses. The list of biodegradable items also includes kitchen waste, cartons, bones and viscera of poultry and cattle, garbage from vegetable markets and households, and non-biodegradable items like polythene bags, glass and tin containers, paper waste, etc. A major environmental and health hazard has been created by the reckless manufacturing and use of plastic bags in Bangladesh since the 1980s. Though Bangladesh was the first country in the world to ban the use of plastic bags in 2002 [37], these are commonly used in the packaging of almost every non-biodegradable item in kitchens, streets, and high-end shopping malls, which contribute to domestic and municipal waste. Moreover, it is also reported that irresponsible discarding and mismanagement of used face masks resulted in a large pollution burden on the aquatic ecosystems in Bangladesh as a result of the COVID-19 spread [12].

3.3. Agro-Chemicals

Globally, approximately two million tons of pesticides are used each year, of which 50% are herbicides, 30% are insecticides, and 18% are fungicides [38]. In addition to nematicides and rodenticides, there are also other types of pesticides. Currently, the largest economy-generating sector of Bangladesh uses a great deal of agro-chemicals, including pesticides and chemical fertilizers, and their use has grown significantly as high-yielding varieties have been introduced. It has been reported that the application of pesticides to crops susceptible to diseases and pests has greatly improved the quality and quantity of their yields [39]. As a result, these chemicals are often used without understanding their nature, behavior, and potential consequences [40,41].
Pesticides used in Bangladesh from 1991 to 2017 are presented in Figure 2B. The release of pesticides from agricultural land can be caused by surface runoff, spray drift, groundwater leaching, and ejection of empty equipment and container washing water without warning [42]. Agriculture pesticides can contribute to aquatic pollution at levels beyond thresholds, causing harm to aquatic organisms at all levels of the food chain, including primary producers [43,44], invertebrates [45,46], and fish [47,48].
It was observed that at least 84 active ingredients are being used in Bangladesh, among which dimethoate, diazinon, chlorpyrifos, and malathion are prominent [49]. Imports of organochlorine and a few organophosphorus pesticides, as well as mercuric compounds, have been banned due to their acute toxicity, environmental persistence, and bioaccumulation. As a result, raw data indicated that usage of pesticides has declined by 25% in the last 9 years (2011–2020) [50]. However, because of their price competitiveness, effectiveness, and ease of application, some of these chemicals are still in use, although their toxicity effects become apparent later. Large masses of these chemicals come into different water bodies at every cropping cycle. It may, therefore, be supposed that a considerable bioaccumulation of chemical toxicants has taken place in the aquatic ecosystem of Bangladesh.

3.4. Algal Pollution

Eutrophication leads to algal blooms/pollution in both freshwater and marine environments. Fueled by nutrient pollution from increased agricultural, industrial, or domestic sources, harmful algal blooms (HABs) are a growing problem in Bangladesh and are affecting fisheries [51]. A considerable number of species of algae have the potential to produce blooms. Some of the genera most repeatedly engaged are the cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), including the genera Microcystis, Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, and Oscillatoria; the green algae Hydrodictyon, Chlorella and Ankistrodesmus; the diatoms Synedra and Cyclotella; and the flagellates Synura, Euglena and Chlamydomonas [52,53]. The blue-green algal genera mentioned above are also capable of producing extremely dangerous toxins, including neurotoxins and hepatotoxins [54]. Surface scums caused by algal blooms are a very common sight in shallow, warmer, and eutrophic ponds, lakes, and reservoirs of Bangladesh. Toxic cyanobacteria are quite common in eutrophic ponds, lakes and rivers of Bangladesh, where the average concentration of microcystins has been detected beyond the acceptable ranges [52]. Pollution could stimulate algal toxin production, and toxicity can oftentimes cause acute illness and mortality in aquatic and terrestrial animals [55].
Coastal waters have long harbored harmful algal species, but the species propagated from freshwater environments are becoming increasingly prevalent. As a result of heavy rain and floods, invasive freshwater phytoplankton can often be transported to coastal waters and estuaries. Therefore, the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh, has been experiencing an increase in nutrients exported by rivers into the coastal waters. According to [56], riverine nutrient exports to the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) are expected to increase by 2050. Hence, coastal eutrophication is anticipated in the area. It was found that fertilizers used in agriculture, aquaculture, urbanization, and domestic sewage all contributed to nutrient pollution of the BOBLME [57,58]. Every year, 480 tons of solid waste and 2.5 million people’s excreta are dumped into the Karnaphuli River estuary. As a result, coastal waters in Bangladesh, including the Maheshkhali Channel, are prone to eutrophication, which leads to the growth of harmful algal species such as Alexandrium catenella, Dinophysis caudata, Dinophysis mitra, Gymnodinium coeruleum, and Lingulodinium polyedrum [51].
Other than these main categories, plastic pollution has recently received greater attention because of its higher percentage in total waste and also long-term consequences on the environment, animals and human health. Global data show that, being one of the top 10 mismanaged countries, the probability of plastic discharge by Bangladesh is quite high (2.32) than in many countries, including China, India, Thailand, Vietnam, etc. (Figure 2C).

4. Pathways of Pollutants Toward the Bay of Bengal

The majority of Bangladesh’s cities and towns are located on riverbanks, which are surrounded by four major river systems, including the Brahmaputra-Jamuna, the Ganges-Padma, the Surma-Meghna, and the Chittagong, along with many tributaries and distributaries (smaller channels). The major industrial units are located on the banks of rivers due to their ease of communication and transportation. Thousands of tons of waste are released into the river water every day. In consequence, all major river systems in close proximity to major cities and towns are seriously polluted (Figure 3).
Among the large cities, Dhaka and Chittagong appear to be the most waste-generating municipalities, with an average per capita waste generation of 0.7 kg and 0.56 kg per day, respectively. Among other cities, Rajshahi (0.27 kg/day) and Sylhet (0.25 kg/day) produce minimal waste. Flowing beside these cities, the Buriganga, Shitalakkhya, Karnaphuli, Shibsha, Bhairab, Rupsa, Meghna, and Kushiyara carry pollution loads that end up in the Bay of Bengal.
Dhaka, the capital and most heavily polluted megapolis in Bangladesh, has been plagued by water pollution for a long time. It was reported that 98% of Dhaka’s raw sewage is not treated and discharged to the rivers without treatment, thus causing serious environmental pollution [60]. Each day, around 1.96 million tons of untreated domestic sewage enter Dhaka’s urban rivers, according to [60]. On average, one person produces 0.7 kg/day of waste in Dhaka, totaling approximately 31,500 tons of human waste produced each day [60,61]. Moreover, a recent study found that 30,000 tons of plastic waste are found in just four rivers around Dhaka, half of which are found in the Buriganga River [62]. The Karnaphuli, flowing from the Chittagong Hill Tracts into the Bay of Bengal, feeds the city in many ways and plays a crucial role in national and international trading. A total of 713 industries are located between Kaloorghat and the Chittagong Port, mainly producing iron, leather, chemical fertilizer, and pharmaceuticals [63]. There are around 156 units that are close to the Karnaphuli River, and all of them discharge degradable and persistent organic and inorganic wastes, as well as toxic metallic components, directly into the Karnaphuli or the Bay of Bengal; no pollution control measures or infrastructure are in place.
The river is also directly polluted by overloads of urban wastes, raw sewage, agricultural runoff, and partially decomposed sewage. Several studies alleged textiles, tanneries, oil refineries, spinning mills, dyeing, steel, cotton, fertilizer, paper and rayon mills, bitumen plants, cement plants, paint factories, soap and detergent factories, DDT and miscellaneous pesticide production plants, naval and merchant shipyards, ship recycling factories, etc., for poor water quality of the river [64,65,66,67,68,69]. The river was found to have higher concentrations of oil and grease (Figure 4). As the third-largest city in Bangladesh and its economic center, Khulna experienced rapid growth and urbanization during the 1960s as a result of large-scale industrialization [70]. Khulna’s wastewater treatment, disposal, and drainage infrastructure are mostly nonexistent and/or dysfunctional due to the lack of a sewer system and about 75% of solid waste is dumped either into the Rupsha or the Bhairab rivers. Water in these rivers is typically discolored, a sign of pollution, and there may also be higher concentrations of heavy metals at various points along the river. The river receives an abundance of pollutants from many industries, including cement (and brick kilns), pharmaceuticals, textiles, food, and high water-vehicle traffic, all of which contribute to a heavy chemical burden on these rivers. The concentrations of Cu, Zn, Pb, Cr, Cd, As, and Ni in the sediments of Rupsha River exceed the US EPA recommended threshold level, suggesting a greater degree of pollution [21]. In addition, widely distributed shrimp farms in the Khulna region [71] also contribute to aquatic pollution by discharging organic loads, heavy metals, nanoparticles, pesticides, antibiotics, and pathogens.
Surma and Kushiyara, two of the main rivers in the Greater Sylhet Division, have been reported to be polluted by effluents discharged by several industries and mills. There are approximately 8 million people living along the Surma River, making it the most populous basin in Bangladesh, which is responsible for the degradation of water quality [72]. Paper pulp mill effluents, discharged occasionally, cause fish mortality in the Kushiyara River. The Sari-Gowain River in the Sylhet zone is polluted by coal mine effluent from the upstream hilly region. Heavy metal levels (such as Cu, Cr, Cd, Pb, Ni, etc.) found in the sediments and fish collected from the river exceeded the maximum acceptable level [73]. River runoff carries nutrients from agricultural land, street washing, sewage from rural and urban areas, organic waste from domestic households, and shrimp farms into the Bay of Bengal. In the monsoon season, heavy rains result in a dramatic increase in runoff waters, providing sufficient nutrients for coastal and marine waters to become eutrophic. This often leads to noxious and toxic algal blooms that cause severe losses to aquaculture and fishing. Considering the location and network of the rivers, it can be presumed that waste produced in Khulna and Chittagong is more likely to be transported to the Bay of Bengal. Though Sundarban mangrove forest acts as a natural screener for certain types of pollutants, most of the emerging pollutant ends their journey to the Bay of Bengal [74,75].

5. Aquatic Pollution in the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh

The Bay of Bengal is an exceptional ecosystem with an abundance of marine resources, producing 6 million tons of fish that account for 4% of the total global catch [76]. As a result of the discharge of diversified pollutants through drains, canals, and rivers, the ecosystem of the Bay of Bengal is at risk of marine pollution, primarily arising from land-based activities [77]. As presented in Table 2, a range of pollutants, including heavy metals, pesticides, microplastics, plastic materials, and other organic pollutants, have been recorded from the Bay of Bengal Basin.
Heavy metal pollution and oil spills in the Bay of Bengal are mainly sourced from discharges of manufacturing, tanneries, and ship-breaking industries, as well as from fishing trawlers [78]. A severe level of localized oil pollution exists in the country’s main ports, including Chittagong, Khulna, Mongla, Narayangonj, Chandpur, and Barisal. Due to chronic low-level discharges caused by standard operating methodologies and occasional accidents that are inevitable consequences of a vibrant maritime industry, substantial quantities of oil are carried from these ports into the Bay of Bengal every day. A substantial amount of oil and chemical waste gets released into the Bay of Bengal from ships at the port channel in Chittagong [14]. The release of heavy metals into the aquatic ecosystem has also been thought of as a great threat to fisheries, and eventually, to human health. In a study conducted by [79], heavy metals such as Pb, Hg, Cr, Cu, Ni, U, and Cd were found to be exceptionally polluted in the Karnaphuli River and the Bay of Bengal. In Bangladesh, over 8500 industrial establishments are located along its coastline (approximately 47,201 sq km). When these establishments discharge effluents into the environment, they are either deposited in sediments or enter the decomposer community or the plankton trophic level when they reach it. Chemical companies that produce fertilizers and pesticides also dump their toxic chemicals into rivers, eventually polluting the Bay of Bengal with different organochlorines and organophosphorus [80].
Table 2. Pollutants recorded in the Bay of Bengal with their estimated concentration/abundance over recent years (2010–2024).
Table 2. Pollutants recorded in the Bay of Bengal with their estimated concentration/abundance over recent years (2010–2024).
PollutantsAmount, Concentration in Water and SedimentReferences
Heavy metalsMn concentration: water (2.94 μg/L), seaweed (32.9 μg/kg) [81,82]
Zn concentration: water (2.66 μg/L), seaweed (34.5 μg/kg), fish (56.3–126.3 mg/kg), zooplankton (298 to 1160 µg/g)[81,82,83,84]
Cu concentration: water (0.66 μg/L), seaweed (16.6 μg/kg), fish (5–10 mg/kg), zooplankton (14.9–55.56 µg/g)[81,82,83,84]
Ni concentration: water (0.53 μg/L), fish (13.2–37.7 mg/kg)[82,83]
Cd concentration: water (0.09 μg/L), sediment (4.51 mg/kg), fish (0.25–1.5 mg/kg)[82,84,85]
Co concentration: water (0.05 μg/L), seaweed (0.26 μg/kg), zooplankton (9–22.1 µg/g)[81,82,83]
Pb concentration: water (0.05 μg/L), seaweed (2.6 μg/kg), sediment (65.31 mg/kg), fish (27.5–52.5 mg/kg)[81,82,84,85]
Cr concentration: seaweed (1.15 μg/kg), sediment (121.87 mg/kg), fish (15.3–89.3 mg/kg), zooplankton (0.14–2.3 µg/g)[81,83,84,85]
As concentration: seaweed (3.4 μg/kg), sediment (32.53 mg/kg)[81,85]
MicroplasticAbundance in water (60–820 items per m3), sediment (60–1620 items per kg) and beach sand (20–1540 items per kg), Hilsha (19.13 ± 10.77 particles/fish), Bombay duck (8.72 ± 1.54 particle/fish), Sardine (3.20 ± 1.16 particle/fish), Brown shrimp (7.80 ± 2 particle/shrimp), Tiger shrimp (6.60 ± 2 particle/shrimp), Salt (2676 MPs/kg), Sandy beach (248–402 items/m3), sediment of Saint martin island (0.33–317.67 items/kg), sediment of Saint Martin island (0.118 ± 0.034 items/m3), muscle (1.74 ± 0.23–3.79 ± 2.03 items/g), gastrointestinal tract (0.54 ± 0.22–5.96 ± 3.16 items/g), Surface water of estuary (150.00 ± 65.62 items/m3), sediment of estuary (30.56 ± 9.34 items/kg)[86,87,88,89,90,91,92]
Marine Litter0.14 to 0.58 items/m2[93]
PlasticPlastic debris in water (3.34 g/m2)[94]
Plastic items on sandy beach (54,401 ± 184 items//m2)[94]
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonsPAHs concentration in sediment (1.87 to 918.79 ng/g)[95]
PlasticizersConcentration in surface water (176.1 ± 104.8 ng/L), storm water (355.2 ± 232.5 ng/L)[96]
Bisphenol A Concentration in surface water (658.3 ± 1760 ng/L), storm water (459.3 ± 620.2 ng/L)[96]
Petroleum hydrocarbons Concentration in sediment (17–39.72 ppm)[97]
Organochlorine pesticideConcentration of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs) in sediment (0.05–12 ng/g) [98]
Concentration of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its six metabolites (DDTs) in sediment (0.05–1.4 ng/g), sediment (0.09–4.78 ng/g)[98,99]
Concentration of hexachlorobenzene (HCB) in sediments (0.05–11.5 ng/g)[98]
Concentration of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in water (1.93–4.43 ng/L), Sediment (19.9–6570 pg/g)[99]
As coastal marine aquaculture has become more intensified, a new dimension of degradation has been added, further aggravating the degrading state of estuaries and inshore waters. Every year, approximately 620 tons of urea are used in shrimp culture in Cox’s Bazar, and antibiotics and other chemicals pollute coastal waters, causing considerable damage to aquatic life [14]. As a result of this practice, nitrate loading and eutrophication have a deliberate impact on coastal areas. Another major pollutant identified in the Bay of Bengal is plastic materials and their derivatives (meso- and micro-plastics). The Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna (GBM) release 72,845 tons of plastic into the oceans each year, making up roughly 3.5% of the plastic in the world’s top ten plastic-polluting rivers [100]. The Bay of Bengal was reported as being contaminated with 73,000 tons of plastic waste on a daily basis by Bangladesh in another report released in 2020 [62]. A World Wildlife Fund report stated that 129 billion masks and 6600 gloves ended up in the Bay via rivers [101]. Thus, it is not surprising that plastic waste has been littered heavily on the Bay of Bengal’s seabed, shorelines, and water column for centuries. There are nearly dead corals on Saint Martin Island, which are littered with plastic packages, marine debris, and food wrap castaways, all of which might be the result of hundreds of tourists visiting each day [102]. As a consequence, a variety of different activities have degraded the marine environment [14].

6. Effects of Pollution on Fish and Fisheries

The effects of pollution on aquatic life have become a serious concern in recent years. It is evident that pollutants, regardless of where they come from, have direct or indirect effects on fish communities as well as the overall ecosystem [103]. A wide range of pollutants is harming aquatic ecosystems at all trophic levels of the Bay of Bengal, from plankton to whales. Changing climates, chronic pesticide exposures, and bioaccumulation of pollutants can all exacerbate detrimental effects by changing the relative toxicity, level of exposure, and bioaccumulation of pollutants [104].
Pollutants have a drastic effect on aquatic ecosystems, often causing mass mortality of fish and aquatic invertebrates and affecting the community for years. The instantaneous effects may be exemplified by algal blooms, resulting from eutrophication, and long-term effects may be produced by heavy metals, pesticides, and microplastics. Algal pollution has dramatic effects on water quality by acting as a barrier to photosynthesis under the algal scums. Modified zooplankton communities and reduced growth and development of fish, aquatic mammals, and amphibians are among the harmful impacts of HABs [105]. A heavy concentration of organic pollutants, which serve as a vital nutrient source for algae, combined with the loss of fish that help keep algae under control, could lead to massive algal blooms, further lowering the oxygen level in the water. For example, blooms produced by many blue-green algae (Anabaena, Euglena, Microcystis) or diatoms may not only deplete oxygen levels in water but also complicate the growth of fish [106]. Massive fish mortality and devastating diseases are also associated with the occurrence of harmful algae that exert serious fisheries impacts. For instance, large-scale mortality of marine fish in the coastal belts of Bangladesh was recorded in September 1998 due to the bloom of Dinophysis caudata, a harmful species under the Dinoflagellata class. Mortality incidents in shrimp farms are further believed to have occurred because of the outbreak of harmful algae along the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh. However, it is calculated that HABs would also be a possible problem in about 95% of the entire catchment area of the Bay of Bengal by 2050 [57].
Fish and other aquatic communities are also affected by pesticides because of disturbance in metabolic processes, which, if severe and/or acute, could be lethal [107]. It has been shown that pesticides containing chemicals like cypermethrin, pyrethroids, cyphenothrin, deltamethrin, and other components have a variety of deleterious effects on the behavior and development of fish, amphibians, birds, and aquatic mammals, both at sublethal levels as well as when acute exposure results in mass mortality of fish. Functional components of fertilizers used for agricultural and aquaculture purposes cause serious damage to fisheries resources as well. For example, fish kills were reported in the Shitalakkhya River near Dhaka City in the 1970s and 1980s, which were attributed to a nearby fertilizer factory releasing raw ammonia into the water. Two rivers in the north of the capital, the Banar and Shitalakkhya, that intersect two key industrial hubs in the country, Gazipur and Mymensingh, have also reported fish deaths due to toxicity levels for the same chemical [108].
It is likely that heavy metals will enter the bodies of fish, crustaceans, and other aquatic organisms and eventually be transported to humans through the consumption of seafood [109]. There is evidence that many of these metals have direct effects on growth, photosynthesis, chlorophyll content, and enzyme activity, among other physiological and biochemical processes [110]. The release of high amounts of Pb and Zn from ships can damage marine ecosystems, which hamper the growth of oysters and bivalve mollusks [111]. In addition, polluting effluents contain a variety of chemicals and substances that can pose risks to fish and other aquatic life. Even though petroleum, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and radioactive materials are generally undetermined, their indirect effects may still be significant. It has been reported that some of these substances cause mass deaths of organisms that are located relatively low on the trophic pyramid, i.e., feeding organisms [20]. Besides macro-invertebrates, phytoplankton are also susceptible to the myriad of toxicants described above, which inhibit photosynthetic activity due to metabolic compromises.
Various organisms are reported to absorb and accumulate these substances, which are then transmitted to higher animals, including humans, via different food chains. Several serious toxic effects can be caused by toxic metals and pesticides for aquatic biota, including DNA damage, tissue damage, genotoxicity, neurotoxicity, hyperactivity, restlessness, and so on [79,112,113,114]. It has been determined that Tenualosa hilsha and Corica soborna are at risk of harm due to the contamination of Pb and Cr. The acute toxicity of Cr on fish species has been demonstrated, as Cr levels caused genotoxic effects and other serious threats. Additionally, potential consumer exposure to heavy metals was assessed by Moxness Reksten et al. [115] through target hazard quotient, hazard index, and target carcinogenic risk based on estimated fish consumption rates in both the Sri Lanka and Bangladesh coasts. The study highlighted the potential for neurological, kidney, and liver damage due to mercury, lead, and cadmium exposure from contaminated fish. Children and adults, particularly in those regions, could face heightened risks due to their consumption patterns, with children being especially vulnerable to developmental and neurological damage from mercury and lead. Another study presented the toxic effects of pollutants on marine organisms such as seashells and oysters [14].
Elevated metal concentrations, exceeding the recommended safety limits, hindered the growth of these organisms, posing a threat to the broader ecosystem. Microplastic contamination was identified in the gastrointestinal tracts of 100 individuals from 10 species of commercial marine fish collected along the Bay of Bengal off the coast of Bangladesh [116]. Growing plastic in the form of micro and meso causes serious effects on aquatic ecosystems, physical disturbance, physiological impairments, productivity loss, and death of marine species [12,117]. Effects in the ecosystem include poor water quality, destruction of coral reefs, changes in ocean biogeochemical processes, structural shift in microbiome, etc. [117,118]. While the rate of bioaccumulation of microplastics was found to be quite high in plankton communities, it exhibited threats to larger animals by restricting their movement, decreasing water transparency, clogging respiratory organs, and reducing foraging behavior and food consumption. When exposed to microplastics, the granulation activities of neutrophils in fish were found to increase significantly, which in turn affects a range of immune functions. Microplastic toxicity in fish also imbalances hormonal activities and minimizes the breeding capacity by reducing fecundity and egg hatching rate [117]. Moreover, the accumulation of waste from tourism and development negatively affected the fragile ecosystem and the natural beauty of St. Martin’s Island (a small coral island of the Bay) [119]. The contamination damaged its unique biodiversity and the overall health of marine life, including the fishery industry.

7. Conclusions and Recommendations

Pollution in the Bay of Bengal has emerged as a serious environmental challenge with long-term consequences on marine ecosystems, biodiversity, fisheries, and human health. This review brings together current knowledge to outline the key pollutants, including industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, heavy metals, pesticides, and microplastics, that find their way into the bay through both direct and diffuse pathways. Findings reveal that pollutants degrade water quality, damage coral reefs, disrupt metabolic and hormonal processes in aquatic organisms, and cause mass fish mortalities through events like harmful algal blooms (HABs). Furthermore, the accumulation of heavy metals and microplastics contributes to genotoxicity and reduced reproductive success in aquatic life, with potential long-term impacts on ecosystem stability and human well-being.
To reduce further harm, it is vital to enforce stricter control over industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, and aquaculture-related pollutants. Coastal Bangladesh would benefit from the establishment of real-time water monitoring systems that can serve as early warning tools. Moreover, promoting better practices among farmers and fishers, managing tourism-related waste, and building public awareness are necessary steps toward preserving marine health. This review acknowledges certain limitations, especially in quantifying pollution loads, due to the absence of consistent, up-to-date monitoring data across the region. Additionally, limited spatial and temporal datasets restrict our ability to fully understand trends and cumulative impacts. Despite these constraints, the findings presented here provide a useful basis for guiding future research, informing policy, and developing targeted interventions for pollution control in the Bay of Bengal.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.K. and S.A.; methodology, N.A.S., S.K. and M.M.H.; investigation, S.K., S.A. and M.M.H.; resources, S.K., S.A. and H.S.; data curation, S.A. and M.M.H.; writing—original draft preparation, N.A.S., S.K., M.M.H., A.B. and H.S.; writing—review and editing, N.A.S., S.K., S.A., M.M.H., A.B. and H.S.; supervision, S.K. and H.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

All data generated and/or analyzed in the study have been published publicly in this manuscript.

Acknowledgments

The authors have reviewed and edited the output and take full responsibility for the content of this publication.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
SDGSustainable Development Goal
HABsHarmful Algal Blooms
BOBLMEBay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem
BAPIBangladesh Association of Pharmaceutical Industries
DGDADirectorate General of Drug Administration
KAFCOKarnaphuli Fertilizer Company Limited
BCICBangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation

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Figure 1. Major sources of pollution flowing into the Bay of Bengal: industrial, landfill, aquaculture, household, livestock, and agricultural waste.
Figure 1. Major sources of pollution flowing into the Bay of Bengal: industrial, landfill, aquaculture, household, livestock, and agricultural waste.
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Figure 2. Waste generating scenario of Bangladesh: (A) trend of total waste generation (MT) from 1991 to 2041; (B) trend of pesticides usage in Bangladesh (1991–2017); and (C) Top 15 countries with respective volume of mismanaged waste (MT) and probability of plastic emitted to the ocean (data source: https://ourworldindata.org/ (accessed on 24 March 2025)).
Figure 2. Waste generating scenario of Bangladesh: (A) trend of total waste generation (MT) from 1991 to 2041; (B) trend of pesticides usage in Bangladesh (1991–2017); and (C) Top 15 countries with respective volume of mismanaged waste (MT) and probability of plastic emitted to the ocean (data source: https://ourworldindata.org/ (accessed on 24 March 2025)).
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Figure 3. Per capita waste generation in major Bangladeshi cities, with waste eventually flowing to the Bay of Bengal. Waste generation data were retrieved from Mostakin et al. [59].
Figure 3. Per capita waste generation in major Bangladeshi cities, with waste eventually flowing to the Bay of Bengal. Waste generation data were retrieved from Mostakin et al. [59].
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Figure 4. Diagram showing the possible movement of pollutants and nutrients toward the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh.
Figure 4. Diagram showing the possible movement of pollutants and nutrients toward the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh.
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Shaika, N.A.; Khan, S.; Awal, S.; Haque, M.M.; Bashar, A.; Simsek, H. Aquatic Pollution in the Bay of Bengal: Impacts on Fisheries and Ecosystems. Hydrology 2025, 12, 191. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology12070191

AMA Style

Shaika NA, Khan S, Awal S, Haque MM, Bashar A, Simsek H. Aquatic Pollution in the Bay of Bengal: Impacts on Fisheries and Ecosystems. Hydrology. 2025; 12(7):191. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology12070191

Chicago/Turabian Style

Shaika, Nowrin Akter, Saleha Khan, Sadiqul Awal, Md. Mahfuzul Haque, Abul Bashar, and Halis Simsek. 2025. "Aquatic Pollution in the Bay of Bengal: Impacts on Fisheries and Ecosystems" Hydrology 12, no. 7: 191. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology12070191

APA Style

Shaika, N. A., Khan, S., Awal, S., Haque, M. M., Bashar, A., & Simsek, H. (2025). Aquatic Pollution in the Bay of Bengal: Impacts on Fisheries and Ecosystems. Hydrology, 12(7), 191. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology12070191

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