The Integrated Use of Heavy-Metal Pollution Indices and the Assessment of Metallic Health Risks in the Phreatic Groundwater Aquifer—The Case of the Oued Souf Valley in Algeria
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Background of the Study Area
2.1.1. Geographical Location of the Study Area
2.1.2. Geology and Hydrogeology
2.1.3. Phreatic Groundwater Static Level Fluctuation
2.2. Sampling and Measurements
2.3. Assessment of Environmental Hazards to Groundwater Vulnerability to Heavy Metals
2.3.1. The Degree of Contamination (Cdeg)
2.3.2. Geo-Accumulation Index (Igeo)
2.3.3. Enrichment Factor (EF)
2.4. Ecological Risk (ER) and Potential Ecological Risk (PERI) Indices
Human Health Risk Assessment from the Groundwater
2.5. Spatial Analysis
2.6. Hierarchical Clustering Analysis (HCA)
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Physico-Chemical Data
3.2. Variations in Heavy Metals in the Phreatic Aquifer
3.3. Spatial Patterns Detection
3.4. Cluster Analysis
3.5. Evaluation of the Heavy-Metal pollution in the Phreatic Aquifer
3.6. Risk Evaluation of Human Health from the Heavy Metals of the Phreatic Aquifer
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Common Conditions | |
---|---|
Replicates | 3 |
Pump speed | 15 rpm |
Uptake time | 15 s |
Rinse time | 30 s |
Stabilization time | 10 s |
Element | Wavelength (nm) | Read Time (s) | Nebulizer Pressure (kPa) |
---|---|---|---|
Al | 394.401 | 3 | 240 |
B | 249.772 | 3 | 100 |
Ba | 455.403 | 3 | 240 |
Bi | 306.772 | 3 | 140 |
Ca | 430.253 | 1 | 140 |
Cd | 228.802 | 3 | 140 |
Co | 340.512 | 3 | 240 |
Cr | 425.433 | 3 | 240 |
Cu | 324.754 | 1 | 240 |
Fe | 371.993 | 3 | 120 |
K | 776.897 | 1 | 200 |
Li | 610.365 | 1 | 240 |
Mg | 383.829 | 3 | 240 |
Mn | 403.076 | 3 | 240 |
Na | 589.592 | 1 | 80 |
Ni | 352.454 | 3 | 240 |
Pb | 405.781 | 5 | 240 |
Sr | 407.771 | 1 | 200 |
Zn | 213.857 | 5 | 140 |
Variables | Mean | SD | CV | Min | Median | Max | WHO 2008 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
T (°C) | 27.850 | 1.720 | 0.062 | 25.000 | 27.800 | 31.400 | - |
pH | 7.307 | 0.515 | 0.070 | 6.780 | 7.110 | 8.570 | 6.5–8.5 |
EC (µS/cm) | 4035.714 | 858.018 | 0.213 | 3100 | 3725 | 6200 | 1000 |
Al (mg/L) | 0.309 | 0.083 | 0.269 | 0.220 | 0.290 | 0.520 | 0.2 |
Fe (mg/L) | 0.214 | 0.092 | 0.429 | 0.110 | 0.185 | 0.400 | 0.3 |
Mn (mg/L) | 0.440 | 0.111 | 0.253 | 0.300 | 0.400 | 0.710 | 0.5 |
B (mg/L) | 0.626 | 0.426 | 0.681 | 0.192 | 0.454 | 1.408 | 0.5 |
Ba (mg/L) | 0.015 | 0.009 | 0.628 | 0.004 | 0.011 | 0.034 | 0.7 |
Bi (mg/L) | 0.144 | 0.108 | 0.753 | 0.000 | 0.146 | 0.282 | - |
Cd (mg/L) | <Lod | <Lod | <Lod | <Lod | <Lod | <Lod | 0.003 |
Co (mg/L) | <Lod | <Lod | <Lod | <Lod | <Lod | <Lod | - |
Cr (mg/L) | 0.0081 | 0.010 | 1.231 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.023 | 0.05 |
Cu (mg/L) | 0.004 | 0.007 | 1.612 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.020 | 1 |
Li (mg/L) | <Lod | <Lod | <Lod | <Lod | <Lod | <Lod | - |
Ni (mg/L) | 0.009 | 0.007 | 0.832 | 0.000 | 0.007 | 0.024 | 0.02 |
Pb (mg/L) | 0.005 | 0.013 | 2.711 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.045 | 0.01 |
Sr (mg/L) | 7.060 | 2.437 | 0.345 | 1.774 | 7.762 | 9.939 | - |
Zn (mg/L) | 0.0075 | 0.012 | 1.613 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.037 | 3 |
Parameters | Cross-Validation | K = 1 | K = 2 | K = 3 | Optimized Errors | Optimized K Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Al | MPE | 0.00148 | 0.00184 | 0.0031 | 0.0029 | 2.86922 |
RMSPE | 0.0835 | 0.08032 | 0.07948 | 0.07946 | ||
Fe | MPE | 0.00106 | −0.00089 | −0.0016 | −0.00017 | 1.567 |
RMSPE | 0.10417 | 0.10391 | 0.1048 | 0.10375 | ||
Mn | MPE | 0.01766 | 0.02316 | 0.02614 | 0.01766 | 1 |
RMSPE | 0.1278 | 0.1413 | 0.15272 | 0.1278 | ||
B | MPE | 0.0356 | 0.0373 | 0.03102 | 0.0356 | 1 |
RMSPE | 0.5338 | 0.5667 | 0.59156 | 0.5338 | ||
Ba | MPE | −0.00016 | −0.00058 | −0.00091 | −0.00016 | 1 |
RMSPE | 0.01152 | 0.01212 | 0.0127 | 0.01152 | ||
Bi | MPE | −0.00032 | 0.00196 | 0.00393 | −0.00032 | 1 |
RMSPE | 0.14673 | 0.15796 | 0.16672 | 0.14673 | ||
Cr | MPE | 0.00104 | 0.00183 | 0.00234 | 0.00104 | 1 |
RMSPE | 0.01179 | 0.01261 | 0.01337 | 0.01179 | ||
Cu | MPE | 0.0006 | 0.00073 | 0.00072 | 0.0006 | 1 |
RMSPE | 0.00975 | 0.01015 | 0.01044 | 0.00975 | ||
Ni | MPE | 0.00109 | 0.00187 | 0.00235 | 0.00109 | 1 |
RMSPE | 0.0079 | 0.0085 | 0.00905 | 0.0079 | ||
Pb | MPE | −0.00027 | −0.00083 | −0.00122 | −0.00157 | 17.46576 |
RMSPE | 0.01806 | 0.01802 | 0.018 | 0.018 | ||
Sr | MPE | −0.09789 | −0.2642 | −0.39167 | −0.09789 | 1 |
RMSPE | 2.75949 | 2.92814 | 3.09837 | 2.75949 | ||
Zn | MPE | 0.00092 | 0.00181 | 0.00247 | 0.00165 | 1.79839 |
RMSPE | 0.01226 | 0.01204 | 0.01227 | 0.01203 |
Heavy Metals | Group 1 (n = 3) | Group 2 (n = 11) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Median | Minimum | Maximum | Mean | Median | Minimum | Maximum | |
Al | 0.30 | 0.3 | 0.28 | 0.33 | 0.31 | 0.29 | 0.22 | 0.52 |
Fe | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.12 | 0.17 | 0.23 | 0.23 | 0.11 | 0.40 |
Mn | 0.37 | 0.37 | 0.35 | 0.38 | 0.46 | 0.42 | 0.30 | 0.71 |
B | 0.24 | 0.246 | 0.19 | 0.27 | 0.73 | 0.579 | 0.31 | 1.41 |
Ba | 0.01 | 0.008 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.016 | 0.00 | 0.03 |
Bi | 0.21 | 0.188 | 0.17 | 0.28 | 0.12 | 0.1 | 0.00 | 0.27 |
Cr | 0.02 | 0.022 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0 | 0.00 | 0.02 |
Cu | 0.00 | 0 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.002 | 0.00 | 0.02 |
Ni | 0.02 | 0.019 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.006 | 0.00 | 0.01 |
Pb | 0.00 | 0 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0 | 0.00 | 0.05 |
Sr | 3.15 | 3.642 | 1.77 | 4.02 | 8.13 | 8.158 | 6.19 | 9.94 |
Zn | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.02 |
Cases | Adults | Children | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chronic Daily Intake | Mean | Standard Deviation | Minimum | Median | Maximum | Mean | Standard Deviation | Minimum | Median | Maximum |
Al | 0.00847 | 0.00228 | 0.00603 | 0.00795 | 0.01425 | 0.01977 | 0.00531 | 0.01406 | 0.01854 | 0.03324 |
Fe | 0.00587 | 0.00252 | 0.00301 | 0.00507 | 0.01096 | 0.01370 | 0.00588 | 0.00703 | 0.01183 | 0.02557 |
Mn | 0.01205 | 0.00305 | 0.00822 | 0.01096 | 0.01945 | 0.02813 | 0.00711 | 0.01918 | 0.02557 | 0.04539 |
B | 0.01714 | 0.01168 | 0.00526 | 0.01242 | 0.03858 | 0.04000 | 0.02726 | 0.01227 | 0.02899 | 0.09001 |
Ba | 0.00040 | 0.00025 | 0.00011 | 0.00029 | 0.00093 | 0.00093 | 0.00058 | 0.00026 | 0.00067 | 0.00217 |
Cr | 0.00022 | 0.00027 | 0.00000 | 0.00000 | 0.00063 | 0.00052 | 0.00064 | 0.00000 | 0.00000 | 0.00147 |
Cu | 0.00012 | 0.00019 | 0.00000 | 0.00000 | 0.00055 | 0.00028 | 0.00045 | 0.00000 | 0.00000 | 0.00128 |
Ni | 0.00024 | 0.00020 | 0.00000 | 0.00018 | 0.00066 | 0.00057 | 0.00047 | 0.00000 | 0.00042 | 0.00153 |
Pb | 0.00013 | 0.00036 | 0.00000 | 0.00000 | 0.00123 | 0.00031 | 0.00083 | 0.00000 | 0.00000 | 0.00288 |
Sr | 0.19342 | 0.06676 | 0.04860 | 0.21266 | 0.27230 | 0.45131 | 0.15576 | 0.11341 | 0.49620 | 0.63537 |
Zn | 0.00021 | 0.00033 | 0.00000 | 0.00000 | 0.00101 | 0.00048 | 0.00077 | 0.00000 | 0.00000 | 0.00237 |
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Barkat, A.; Bouaicha, F.; Ziad, S.; Mester, T.; Sajtos, Z.; Balla, D.; Makhloufi, I.; Szabó, G. The Integrated Use of Heavy-Metal Pollution Indices and the Assessment of Metallic Health Risks in the Phreatic Groundwater Aquifer—The Case of the Oued Souf Valley in Algeria. Hydrology 2023, 10, 201. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology10100201
Barkat A, Bouaicha F, Ziad S, Mester T, Sajtos Z, Balla D, Makhloufi I, Szabó G. The Integrated Use of Heavy-Metal Pollution Indices and the Assessment of Metallic Health Risks in the Phreatic Groundwater Aquifer—The Case of the Oued Souf Valley in Algeria. Hydrology. 2023; 10(10):201. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology10100201
Chicago/Turabian StyleBarkat, Ayoub, Foued Bouaicha, Sabrina Ziad, Tamás Mester, Zsófi Sajtos, Dániel Balla, Islam Makhloufi, and György Szabó. 2023. "The Integrated Use of Heavy-Metal Pollution Indices and the Assessment of Metallic Health Risks in the Phreatic Groundwater Aquifer—The Case of the Oued Souf Valley in Algeria" Hydrology 10, no. 10: 201. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology10100201