Exposure to BPA in Children—Media-Based and Biomonitoring-Based Approaches
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Section
2.1. Forward Based Intake Estimation
Intake Equation | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Im = CRm × CONCm/BW for dust and water ingestion, and inhalation | ||||||||||
Definitions | ||||||||||
Im = Total BPA intake from medium “m” ng/kg-day | ||||||||||
BW = Body weight, kg | ||||||||||
I. Exposure Parameters | ||||||||||
Description | Value | |||||||||
Age 1 Year | Age 2 Years | Ages 3 to 5 Years | Ages 6 to 10 Years | Ages 11 to 15 Years | Ages 16 to 20 Years | |||||
I. Body weight (kg), BW | 11.4 | 13.8 | 18.6 | 31.8 | 56.8 | 71.6 | ||||
II. Surface area (m2), SA | 0.53 | 0.61 | 0.76 | 1.08 | 1.59 | 1.84 | ||||
II. Concentrations and Contact Rates, Mean | ||||||||||
Description | Concentration | Age 1 Year | Age 2 Years | Ages 3 to 5 Years | Ages 6 to 10 Years | Ages 11 to 15 Years | Ages 16 to 20 Years | |||
Dust Ingestion (mg/day) a | 50 ng/g | 60 | 60 | 60 | 60 | 60 | 60 | |||
Dust Dermal Absorption (mg/day) b | 50 ng/g | 44.5 | 51.2 | 63.8 | 90.7 | 133.6 | 154.6 | |||
Inhalation (m3/day) | 1 ng/m3 | 8.0 | 8.9 | 10.1 | 12.0 | 15.2 | 16.3 | |||
Water Ingestion (mL/day) | 0.1 ng/mL | 271 | 317 | 327 | 414 | 520 | 638 | |||
III. BPA Exposure by Pathway, ng/kg-day | ||||||||||
Description | Age 1 Year c | Age 2 Years c | Ages 3 to 5 Years | Ages 6 to 10 Years | Ages 11 to 15 Years | Ages 16 to 20 Years | ||||
Dust Ingestion | 0.26 | 0.22 | 0.16 | 0.09 | 0.05 | 0.04 | ||||
Dust Dermal Absorption | 0.20 | 0.19 | 0.17 | 0.14 | 0.12 | 0.11 | ||||
Inhalation | 0.70 | 0.64 | 0.54 | 0.38 | 0.27 | 0.23 | ||||
Water Ingestion | 2.38 | 2.30 | 1.76 | 1.30 | 0.92 | 0.89 | ||||
IV. Total BPA Exposure from air, dust and drinking water (ng/kg-day) | 3.54 | 3.35 | 2.63 | 1.92 | 1.35 | 1.27 |
Intake Equation | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
It = ∑ [CRf × FCf × CONCf,c + CRf × (1 − FCf) × CONCf,o] | ||||||
I. Average Concentration in Food Type, ng/g Wet Weight | ||||||
Description | Canned (from Table A2) | Other (from [32]) | ||||
Vegetables | 40.5 | 0.04 | ||||
Fruit | 2.3 | 0.02 | ||||
Meat | 18.3 | 0.02 | ||||
Fish | 31.5 | 0 | ||||
Dairy | 7.5 | 0 | ||||
II. Contact Rate, Per Capita Mean | ||||||
Description | Age 1 Year | Age 2 Years | Ages 3 to 5 Years | Ages 6 to 10 Years | Ages 11 to 15 Years | Ages 16 to 20 Years |
Vegetables | 6.7 | 6.7 | 5.4 | 3.7 | 2.3 | 2.3 |
Fruit | 7.8 | 7.8 | 4.6 | 2.3 | 0.9 | 0.9 |
Meat | 4 | 4 | 3.9 | 2.8 | 2 | 2 |
Fish | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 |
Dairy | 43.2 | 43.2 | 24 | 12.9 | 5.5 | 5.5 |
III. Fraction of Food Eaten in Canned/Jarred form by Age Group and Food Type | ||||||
Description | Age 1 Year | Age 2 Years | Ages 3 to 5 Years | Ages 6 to 10 Years | Ages 11 to 15 Years | Ages 16 to 20 Years |
Vegetables | 0.18 | 0.17 | 0.18 | 0.23 | 0.27 | 0.31 |
Fruit | 0.18 | 0.16 | 0.17 | 0.21 | 0.24 | 0.26 |
Meat | 0.21 | 0.18 | 0.18 | 0.23 | 0.37 | 0.32 |
Fish | 0.28 | 0.16 | 0.26 | 0.26 | 0.39 | 0.34 |
Milk | 0.16 | 0.14 | 0.17 | 0.21 | 0.24 | 0.28 |
IV. BPA Exposure From Food Type Results are Expressed as Canned/Other, ng/kg-day | ||||||
Description | Age 1 Year | Age 2 Years | Ages 3 to 5 Years | Ages 6 to 10 Years | Ages 11 to 15 Years | Ages 16 to 20 Years |
Vegetables | 48.8/0.2 | 46.1/0.2 | 39.4/0.2 | 34.5/0.1 | 25.2/0.1 | 28.9/0.1 |
Fruit | 2.8/0.1 | 2.7/0.1 | 2.3/0.1 | 2.0/0.1 | 1.4/0.03 | 1.7/0.03 |
Meat | 22.0/0.1 | 20.8/0.1 | 17.7/0.1 | 15.5/0.1 | 11.3/0.04 | 13.0/0.04 |
Fish | 38.0/0 | 35.9/0 | 30.6/0 | 26.8/0 | 19.6/0 | 22.5/0 |
Dairy | 9.1/0 | 8.5/0 | 7.3/0 | 6.4/0 | 4.7/0 | 5.4/0 |
V. Total BPA Exposure From Food, Canned/Other, ng/kg-day | 121.8/0.5 | 114.4/0.5 | 97.7/0.4 | 85.5/0.2 | 62.6/0.1 | 71.8/0.1 |
2.2. Backward Based Intake Estimation
2.3. Infant Exposures
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. BPA Intakes from Non-Food Media
3.2. BPA Intakes from Food
3.3. BPA Intakes Derived from Biomonitoring Data
Age Range | Central Tendency, Mean and/or Median | 95th | Description |
---|---|---|---|
0–1 | 46 (mean) [44] 64 (mean) [43] 137 (median) [42] | 772 [42], 1796 [43] | [42,43,44] Also see Table A7 |
1–5 | mean = 153; median = 121 | 453 | [36]; Table A5 Children’s study in OH and NC, ages 23 to 64 months, n = 142 |
6–10 | mean = 87–97; median = 31–43 | 185–187 | [39]; Table A6 NHANES 2009–2010 cycle. Range provided because of different calculation methods: lower value based on urine volume, higher based on creatinine. |
11–15 | mean = 50–65; median = 29–33 | 160–162 | [39]; Table A6 NHANES 2009–2010 cycle. Ranges provided because of different calculation methods: lower value based on urine volume, higher based on creatinine. |
16–20 | mean= 53–66; median = 33–34 | 135–193 | [39]; Table A6 NHANES 2009–2010 cycle. Ranges provided because of different calculation methods: lower value based on urine volume, higher based on creatinine. |
3.4. Infant Data
4. Conclusions
Abbreviations
BPA | bisphenol A |
CTEPP | Children’s Total (Aggregate) Exposure to Persistent Pesticides and Other Persistent Organic Pollutants |
EFSA | European Food Safety Authority |
EPA | Environmental Protection Agency |
LOD | limit of detection |
NHANES | National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey |
WWEIA-FCID | What We Eat in America—Food Commodity Intake Database |
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Appendix
Media (Units) | Results | Reference and Details |
---|---|---|
Indoor air (ng/m3) | Median: <LOD (0.9)–1.8; Range: <LOD (0.9)–193 | [11]; USA (NC, OH); 2000–2001 CTEPP study of 257 preschool children and their primary adult caregivers; 295 samples collected over 48 h period in 4 groups: NC, home; NC, daycare; OH, home; OH, daycare. Percent detections ranged from 45%–73% depending on sampling site. |
Median: <LOD (0.8) Max: 22 | [54]; USA (CA) Study of 50 non-smoking homes in two CA cities; number of samples and LOD not reported. | |
Geometric Mean: 1.5 (home), 1.1 (daycare); Range: <LOD (0.6)–30.3 (home), <LOD (0.6)–7.4 (daycare) | [36]; USA (OH) Subset of participants in the CTEPP study; 81 preschool children and their primary adult caregivers; 103 samples collected over 48 h period in 2 groups: home and daycare. Percent detections ranged from 68%–73% depending on sampling site. | |
Outdoor air (ng/m3) | Median: <LOD (0.9); Range: LOD (0.9)–51.5 | [11]; USA (NC, OH); 2000–2001 CTEPP study of 257 preschool children and their primary adult caregivers; 257 samples collected over 48-h period in 4 groups: NC, home; NC, daycare; OH, home; OH, daycare. Percent detections ranged from 31%–44% depending on sampling site. |
Geometric Mean: 1.0 (home), 0.8 (daycare); Range: <LOD (0.6)–19.0 (home), <LOD (0.6)–6.9 (daycare) | [36]; USA (OH) Subset of participants in the CTEPP study; 81 preschool children and their primary adult caregivers; 97 samples collected over 48 h period in 2 groups: home and daycare. Percent detections ranged from 40%–44% depending on sampling site. | |
Median: <LOD (0.8) Maximum: 1.7 | [54]; USA (CA) Study of 50 non-smoking homes in two CA cities; number of samples and LOD not reported. | |
Dust (ng/g) | Median: 422; Range: <0.5–10,200 | [55]; USA (KY, NY); 2006, 2010 Study of 48 houses in KY and NY, and 6 laboratories in KY; 50 indoor dust samples, along with 4 clothes dryer lint samples and 2 refrigerator dust samples collected (total n = 56). Percent detection was 95% |
Median: <LOD (4)–30.8 Range: <LOD (4)–707 | [11]; USA (NC, OH); 2000–2001 CTEPP study of 257 preschool children and their primary adult caregivers; 267 samples collected over 48 h period in 4 groups: NC, home; NC, daycare; OH, home; OH, daycare. Percent detections ranged from 25%–70% depending on sampling site. | |
Geometric Mean: 40.4 (home), 38.9 (daycare); Range: 19.6–589 (home), 20.0–124 (daycare) | [36]; USA (OH) Subset of participants in the CTEPP study; 81 preschool children and their primary adult caregivers; 99 samples collected over 48 h period in 2 groups: home and daycare. Percent detections ranged from 43%–70% depending on sampling site. | |
Drinking water (ng/g) | Maximum: 0.2 | [56]; USA (NJ); 2003 Samples collected from a drinking water treatment plant, over a 3-week period. Twelve samples collected at each of 6 sites in the plant. Detection rate was 100% in source water and 17% in treated (finished) water. |
Food Category | Final Selected Value, ng/g Whole 1 | Literature Other Data | Location and Specific Foods 2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
% Pos (n) | Mean | |||
Vegetables | 43.7 | 100 (6) | 23 | Canadian, beans, beets, peas, tomatoes |
92 (39) | 20 | U.S. (1), green beans, corn, peas, tomatoes, mixed | ||
96 (25) | 88 | U.S. (2), green beans, corn, tomatoes, peas, misc Veg (wax beans, spinach, stir fry, oyster mushrooms, almond jelly) | ||
Fruit | 2.1 | 50 (4) | 1 | Canadian, cherries, pineapple |
22 (9) | 0.3 | U.S. (1), cling peaches, oranges, pineapple | ||
57 (14) | 5 | U.S. (2), fruit cocktail, pineapple, sliced peaches | ||
Meat | 23.3 | 100 (1) | 10 | Canadian, luncheon meats |
82 (38) | 2 | U.S. (1), chicken (soup, chunk), beef (chili, corned), Spam, ham spread | ||
100 (17) | 58 | U.S. (2), pork & beans, chili | ||
Fish | 39.7 | 100 (1) | 106 | Canadian, unspecified |
58 (12) | 1 | U.S. (1), tuna, sardines | ||
100 (6) | 12 | U.S. (2), tuna, albacore, mackerel | ||
Dairy | 7.5 | 100 (1) | 15 | Canadian; evaporated milk |
0 (8) | ND (0.4) | U.S. (1), snacking cheese |
- Every individual record in the WWEIA-FCID file “Commodity_CSFFM_Intake_0308.cvs” contains information on participant ID, and reported consumption (by mass) for a single food item, categorized according to a numerical “agricultural food commodity” code. The remaining variables specify the day on which the food was consumed, the food form as described above, the cooking method, and the cooked status. There are a total of 558 commodity codes in the database, which are linked to a text description in the “FCID_Code_Description.csv” file. We grouped these codes into the following food groups to correspond to the BPA food concentration data: vegetables, fruit, meat, fish, and dairy.
- With this categorization, each record included a consumption rate for a given individual and given food item, a food group, and a food form. The records were collapsed across specific food items within each food form and food group, yielding a total consumption (by mass, for each individual) of food consumed in each form, for each food group.
- Next, records were again collapsed, this time over all food forms within a food group. This yielded a total consumption (by mass, for each individual) for each food group. The total canned form of each food group (calculated in Step 2) was divided by the total amount of food in each food group (calculated in Step 3) for each individual, to calculate the fraction of food (by mass) within each group, consumed in canned form. Table A3 provides the (unweighted) number of individuals in each age group, and the number consuming any food in a given food group; note that not all individuals consumed food within each group, thus the number of individuals represented by the canned fractions is different across groups.
- Finally, the median fraction of foods eaten in the canned form by surveyed individuals was summarized according to food groups and age groups (detailed results in Table A4).
Food Group | Infant (<1 Year) | Age 1 Year | Age 2 Years | Ages 3 to 5 Years | Ages 6 to 10 Years | Ages 11 to 15 Years | Ages 16 to 20 Years | Ages 21+ Years |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total Number in Age Group | 1387 | 895 | 860 | 1642 | 2523 | 3202 | 2994 | 14,135 |
Eggs | 427 | 808 | 802 | 1549 | 2414 | 3017 | 2798 | 13,298 |
Fish | 39 | 130 | 157 | 283 | 470 | 587 | 582 | 4325 |
Fruit | 1279 | 891 | 852 | 1626 | 2492 | 3101 | 2838 | 13,489 |
Grain | 844 | 888 | 853 | 1640 | 2519 | 3195 | 2980 | 14,073 |
Meat | 418 | 777 | 799 | 1535 | 2399 | 3049 | 2806 | 13,087 |
Milk | 1218 | 895 | 860 | 1641 | 2522 | 3195 | 2982 | 14,071 |
Poultry | 480 | 719 | 695 | 1315 | 2004 | 2429 | 2248 | 10,443 |
Rice | 858 | 778 | 744 | 1421 | 2211 | 2718 | 2495 | 12,247 |
Vegetables | 1084 | 895 | 859 | 1642 | 2523 | 3202 | 2993 | 14,131 |
Food Group | Age 1 Year | Age 2 Years | Ages 3 to 5 Years | Ages 6 to 10 Years | Ages 11 to 15 Years | Ages 16 to 20 Years | Ages 21+ Years |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Eggs | 0.09 (0.02–0.3) | 0.11 (0.02–0.3) | 0.14 (0.04–0.3) | 0.18 (0.1–0.3) | 0.23 (0.1–0.4) | 0.27 (0.1–0.5) | 0.11 (0.02–0.3) |
Fish | 0.28 (0.1–0.7) | 0.16 (0.1–0.4) | 0.26 (0.1–0.5) | 0.26 (0.1–0.6) | 0.29 (0.2–0.5) | 0.34 (0.2–0.6) | 0.20 (0.2–0.5) |
Fruit | 0.18 (0.1–0.4) | 0.16 (0.1–0.3) | 0.17 (0.1–0.3) | 0.21 (0.1–0.4) | 0.24 (0.1–0.4) | 0.26 (0.1–0.5) | 0.13 (0.03–0.3) |
Grain | 0.17 (0.1–0.4) | 0.15 (0.04–0.3) | 0.17 (0.1–0.3) | 0.20 (0.1–0.4) | 0.24 (0.1–0.4) | 0.28 (0.1–0.5) | 0.13 (0.02–0.3) |
Meat | 0.21 (0.1–0.4) | 0.18 (0.1–0.4) | 0.18 (0.1–0.3) | 0.23 (0.1–0.4) | 0.27 (0.2–0.4) | 0.32 (0.2–0.5) | 0.17 (0.04–0.3) |
Milk | 0.16 (0.03–0.4) | 0.14 (0.03–0.3) | 0.17 (0.1–0.3) | 0.21 (0.1–0.4) | 0.24 (0.1–0.4) | 0.28 (0.1–0.5) | 0.14 (0.03–0.3) |
Poultry | 0.19 (0.1–0.4) | 0.17 (0.1–0.4) | 0.19 (0.1–0.4) | 0.22 (0.1–0.4) | 0.25 (0.1–0.4) | 0.31 (0.2–0.5) | 0.15 (0.04–0.7) |
Rice | 0.19 (0.04–0.4) | 0.17 (0.04–0.4) | 0.17 (0.1–0.3) | 0.22 (0.1–0.4) | 0.27 (0.1–0.5) | 0.29 (0.1–0.5) | 0.15 (0.03–0.7) |
Vegetables | 0.18 (0.1–0.4) | 0.17 (0.1–0.3) | 0.18 (0.1–0.3) | 0.23 (0.1–0.4) | 0.27 (0.2–0.4) | 0.31 (0.2–0.5) | 0.17 (0.1–0.6) |
Group (n) | Measure | Mean (SD) | Median (25th, 75th Percentiles) | 95th Percentile |
---|---|---|---|---|
Total (142) | BPA concentration (ng/mL) | 6.5 (6.4) | 5.2 (2.6, 7.7) | 19.3 |
BPA excretion based on urine volume (ng/kg-day) | 152.5 (149.6) | 120.8 (61.0, 180.6) | 452.6 | |
North Carolina, daycare (46) | BPA concentration (ng/mL) | 6.9 (6.4) | 5.2 (3.8–7.9) | 16.6 |
BPA excretion based on urine volume (ng/kg-day) | 162.1 (150.7) | 120.8 (89.1–185.3) | 389.3 | |
North Carolina, daycare, collected at daycare (19) | BPA concentration (ng/mL) | 4.1 (2.6) | 4.1 (1.6–5.7) | 10.2 |
BPA excretion based on urine volume (ng/kg-day) | 94.9 (61.8) | 96.2 (37.5–133.7) | 239.2 | |
North Carolina, daycare, collected at home (27) | BPA concentration (ng/mL) | 8.9 (7.5) | 7.5 (4.5–11.1) | 21.2 |
BPA excretion based on urine volume (ng/kg-day) | 209.3 (179.2) | 175.9 (105.5–260.3) | 497.2 | |
Ohio, all (96) | BPA concentration (ng/mL) | 6.6 (6.4) | 5.2 (2.4–7.4) | 19.8 |
BPA excretion based on urine volume (ng/kg-day) | 147.9 (149.7) | 120.8 (56.3–173.5) | 464.3 | |
Ohio, daycare (56) | BPA concentration (ng/mL) | 6.7 (7.4) | 5.2 (2.4–7.8) | 19.8 |
BPA excretion based on urine volume (ng/kg-day) | 158.0 (173.3) | 120.8 (56.3–181.7) | 464.3 | |
Ohio, daycare, collected at daycare (22) | BPA concentration (ng/mL) | 4.3 (3.1) | 3.2 (1.9–6.9) | 8.8 |
BPA excretion based on urine volume (ng/kg-day) | 99.8 (72.5) | 75.0 (44.6–161.8) | 206.4 | |
Ohio, daycare, collected at home (34) | BPA concentration (ng/mL) | 8.4 (8.8) | 5.5 (3.0–9.4) | 36.2 |
BPA excretion based on urine volume (ng/kg-day) | 195.7 (207.3) | 129.0 (70.4–220.4) | 848.9 | |
Ohio, home (40) | BPA concentration (ng/mL) | 5.7 (4.6) | 4.8 (2.5–6.9) | 16.4 |
BPA excretion based on urine volume (ng/kg-day) | 133.6 (108.8) | 111.4 (58.6–160.6) | 383.4 |
Group (n, unweighted) | Measure | Mean (SD) | Median (25th, 75th Percentiles) | 95th Percentile |
---|---|---|---|---|
Total 6–20 years (870) | BPA concentration (ng/mL) | 3.9 (12.4) | 2.0 (1.1–3.8) | 10.2 |
(571) | BPA excretion based on creatinine correction (ng/kg) | 71.9 (270.8) | 35.6 (23.1–63.0) | 162.8 |
(863) | BPA excretion based on urine volume (ng/kg) | 67.3 (257.6) | 31.9 (16.2–57.7) | 181.5 |
Aged 6–10 years (341) | BPA concentration (ng/mL) | 4.5 (19.8) | 1.7 (1.0–3.4) | 9.7 |
(339) | BPA excretion based on creatinine correction (ng/kg) | 97.2 (415.1) | 42.5 (28.2–71.2) | 185.3 |
(340) | BPA excretion based on urine volume (ng/kg) | 87.0 (423.0) | 30.5 (18.8–60.8) | 186.6 |
Aged 11–15 years (281) | BPA concentration (ng/mL) | 3.4 (5.3) | 2.2 (1.0–3.5) | 9.3 |
(232) | BPA excretion based on creatinine correction (ng/kg) | 65.4 (205.1) | 32.5 (17.8–56.8) | 161.5 |
(279) | BPA excretion based on urine volume (ng/kg) | 49.7 (87.8) | 28.7 (13.9–51.8) | 159.6 |
Aged 16–20 years (248) | BPA concentration (ng/mL) | 3.9 (7.0) | 2.2 (1.2–4.3) | 10.9 |
(248) | BPA excretion based on creatinine correction (ng/kg) | 53.3 (74.7) | 33.2 (23.2–57.9) | 134.6 |
(244) | BPA excretion based on urine volume (ng/kg) | 65.9 (118.0) | 33.8 (17.0–75.0) | 193.4 |
Study Population | Measure | Mean (SD) | Median (25th, 75th Percentiles) | 95th Percentile |
---|---|---|---|---|
[42] Cincinnati, OH Mother-child pairs participating in the HOMES study; data shown are for 1 year olds (n = 213) Urine samples collected during 2004–2009 at clinic or home visits | BPA concentration (μg/L) | -- | 3.9 (1.8, 7.6) | 22 |
BPA concentration (μg/g creatinine) | -- | 18 (9.9, 34) | 91 | |
Creatinine concentration (mg/dL) | -- | 19 (12, 34) | 75 | |
Estimated BPA daily BPA intake (ng/kg-day) * | -- | 137 (63, 267) | 772 | |
[43] Boston, MAMother-child pairs participating in the EARtH study; data shown are for infants 2–15 months old (n = 29). Includes 4 sets of twins. Urine samples collected during 2006–2008 from diapers [43] | Total BPA concentration (μg/L) | 6.0 (16.2) | 1.8 (1.2, 4.4) | 50.9 |
0.5 (0.4) | <LOD (<LOD, <LOD) | 19.4 | ||
Estimated total BPA daily BPA intake (ng/kg-day) * | 1800 | 63.5 (42, 155) | 1796 | |
[44] Baltimore, MD Infants 7–44 days old (n = 12) | Glucoronidated BPA concentration (μg/L) | Geometric mean: 0.74 | -- | -- |
Unconjugated BPA concentration (μg/L) | 0.4 (95% CI: 0.3, 0.6) | -- | -- | |
Estimated glucuronidated BPA intake (ng/kg-day) * | 46.3 | -- | -- |
Media (Units) | Results | Reference and Details |
---|---|---|
Colostrum (μg/L) | Average: 3.0 High: 6.6 | EFSA document calculated from multiple studies ((Table 30) in [16]). |
Geometric Mean: 0.7 | [21] USA; Study of mothers and their premature infants in a NICU; 2 samples collected at 3–5 days post partum. | |
Mature milk (μg/L) | Median: 1.1;Maximum: 7.3 | [45] USA; 20 samples, BPA detected in 90%. |
Median: 1.1;Range: <LOD (0.3)—6.3 | [45] USA; Pooled milk samples from anonymous donors, n = 20 samples with 90% detection rate for total BPA. | |
Median: 1.3 | [21] USA; Study of mothers and their premature infants in a NICU; 26 but two outliers of 222 and 296 removed from analysis. | |
Average: 0.9; High: 2.6 | EFSA document calculated from multiple studies (Table 30 in [16]). | |
Formula—canned, liquid (μg/L ) | Mean, 2007: 5.0 (milk-based), 5.8 (soy-based) Mean, 2008: 6.8 (milk-based), 5.3 (soy-based) | [48] USA and Canada; 2007–2008; Study of 21 samples stored at room temperature for 10 months (2008), in comparison with samples from same lot (but different cans) evaluate at baseline (2007). BPA increases from baseline were between 29.8% and 110%. |
Mean: 5.74; Range: 0.56–11 | [47] USA; Study of 104 formula containers representing 36 products, from across the USA. | |
Median: 1.1 | [30] USA (TX); Study of 9 samples, detection rate of 33% (LOD of 0.2 μg/L). |
Conflicts of Interest
Disclaimer
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Christensen, K.L.Y.; Lorber, M. Exposure to BPA in Children—Media-Based and Biomonitoring-Based Approaches. Toxics 2014, 2, 134-157. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics2020134
Christensen KLY, Lorber M. Exposure to BPA in Children—Media-Based and Biomonitoring-Based Approaches. Toxics. 2014; 2(2):134-157. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics2020134
Chicago/Turabian StyleChristensen, Krista L.Y., and Matthew Lorber. 2014. "Exposure to BPA in Children—Media-Based and Biomonitoring-Based Approaches" Toxics 2, no. 2: 134-157. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics2020134
APA StyleChristensen, K. L. Y., & Lorber, M. (2014). Exposure to BPA in Children—Media-Based and Biomonitoring-Based Approaches. Toxics, 2(2), 134-157. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics2020134