The Effect of Algae or Insect Supplementation as Alternative Protein Sources on the Volatile Profile of Chicken Meat
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Birds and Diet
2.2. Trial 1 (75% to 50% Replacement)
2.3. Trial 2 (100% Replacement)
2.4. Sample Preparation and Volatile Compound Analysis
2.5. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) Analyses
2.6. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Volatile Compounds in Chicken Meat of Trial 1
3.2. Volatile Compounds in Chicken Meat of Trial 2
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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C 1 | SP 1 | HI 1 | Statistical Analysis | p-Level | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alcohols | |||||
2-methoxy-ethanol | 9.36 (13.17) | 9.50 (5.57) | 8.45 (3.60) | ||
1-Penten-3-ol | 4.48 (9.87) | 6.15 (5.33) | 7.86 (4.12) | ||
1-Pentanol | 2.13 a (3.17) | 2.54 a (1.95) | 0. 11 b (0.11) | KW; LDA | 0.026 |
1-Hexanol | 1.26 ab (1.57) | 1.40 a (0.59) | 0.71 b (0.23) | KW; LDA | 0.030 |
1-Heptanol | 0.87 a (0.92) | 0.73 a (0.31) | 0.32 b (0.08) | KW; LDA | 0.027 |
1-Octen-3-ol | 21.3 ab (21.6) | 31.4 a (10.1) | 13.2 b (1.77) | KW; LDA | 0.034 |
2-Ethyl-2-hexenol | 4.02 (4.13) | 2.17 (0.86) | 1.57 (0.85) | ||
4-Ethyl-cyclohexanol | 0.00 (0.53) | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.00) | ||
2-Ethyl-1-hexanol | 4.70 (6.76) | 5.26 (3.16) | 4.41 (3.15) | ||
2-Ethyl-1-decanol | 1.11 (1.11) | 0.77 (0.40) | 0.51 (0.21) | ||
2-Octen-1-ol | 0.75 (0.77) | 0.88 (0.47) | 0.34 (0.24) | ||
1-Octanol | 4.02 (4.25) | 3.19 (0.88) | 2.91 (0.77) | ||
Benzenemethanol, α, α-dimethyl | 0.61 (0.78) | 0.46 (0.34) | 0.56 (0.51) | ||
(Z)-2-Nonen-1-ol | 1.14 (1.01) | 0.79 (0.38) | 0.54 (0.20) | ||
1-Nonanol | 0.21 (0.25) | 0.25 (0.07) | 0.26 (0.16) | ||
Aldehydes | |||||
Pentanal | 4.16 (7.53) | 7.08 (4.95) | 3.52 (3.52) | ||
Hexanal | 148.1 ab (143.4) | 164.3 a (42.8) | 78.62 b (41.7) | KW; LDA | 0.043 |
Heptanal | 3.48 (4.33) | 4.89 (1.46) | 2.94 (1.13) | ||
Methional | nd | nd | nd | ||
2-Heptenal | 0.52 ab (1.12) | 0.75 a (0.45) | 0.13 b (0.13) | KW; LDA | 0.022 |
Benzaldehyde | 0.49 (0.66) | 0.00 (0.00) | 1.0 (0.80) | ||
Octanal | 7.91 (8.01) | 7.74 (3.00) | 5.98 (1.07) | ||
2-Octenal | 0.84 (1.09) | 1.01 (0.45) | 0.70 (0.37) | ||
Nonanal | 23.8 (18.2) | 23.7 (10.1) | 17.5 (5.73) | ||
(E)-2-Nonenal | 0.30 (0.32) | 0.38 (0.14) | 0.24 (0.05) | ||
(Z)-4-Decenal | 0.00 a (0.00) | 0.00 a (0.00) | 0.00 b (0.00) | KW; LDA | 0.026 |
Decanal | 0.96 (1.37) | 1.37 (0.74) | 0.89 (0.49) | ||
2-Decenal | 0.20 (0.22) | 0.29 (0.13) | 0.15 (0.05) | ||
(E,E)-2,4-Decadienal | 0.00 b (0.18) | 0.17 a (0.11) | 0.06 ab (0.06) | KW; LDA | 0.028 |
(E)-2-Undecenal | 0.10(0.12) | 0.12 (0.05) | 0.06 (0.02) | ||
Dodecanal | 0.24 (0.24) | 0.30 (0.12) | 0.20 (0.06) | ||
Tridecanal | 0.04 ab (0.05) | 0.07 a (0.04) | 0.01 b (0.01) | KW; LDA | 0.029 |
Tetradecanal | 0.06 ab (0.06) | 0.08 a (0.03) | 0.03 b (0.03) | KW; LDA | 0.031 |
Ketones | |||||
2-Heptanone | 0.79 (1.03) | 0.81 (0.34) | 0.83 (0.23) | ||
Butyrolactone | nd | nd | nd | ||
2-Methyl-6-heptanone | 0.13 (0.55) | 0.03 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.00) | ||
2-Nonanone | 0.08 ab (0.12) | 0.00 b (0.00) | 0.38 a (0.32) | KW; LDA | 0.005 |
Hydrocarbons | |||||
Toluene | nd | nd | nd | ||
1,2,4-Trimethyl-cyclopentane | nd | nd | nd | ||
Propyl-cyclohexane | 0.00 (2.16) | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.00) | ||
4-Methyl-nonane | nd | nd | nd | ||
2,2,6-Trimethyl-octane | nd | nd | nd | ||
2,2,4,6-Pentamethyl-heptane | 40.4 (33.5) | 39.7 (16.0) | 27.2 (8.66) | ||
Decane | 0.41 (0.42) | 0.29 (0.24) | 0.18 (0.14) | ||
2,2,4,4-Tetramethyl-octane | 3.16 (3.42) | 2.40 (1.05) | 2.23 (1.06) | ||
2,6,7-Trimethyl-decane | 0.67 (0.63) | 0.51 (0.35) | 0.34 (0.34) | ||
2-Methyl-decane | 0.00 (0.09) | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.00) | ||
5-Undecene | nd | nd | nd | ||
Undecane | 1.10 (1.18) | 1.09 (0.21) | 1.02 (0.42) | ||
2,8-Dimethyl-4-methylene-nonane | nd | nd | nd | ||
Pentyl-cyclohexane | nd | nd | nd | ||
3-Methylene-undecane | 0.00 (0.07) | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.00) | ||
Dodecane | 1.16 (1.23) | 1.22 (0.45) | 0.95 (0.39) | ||
2,6,11-Trimethyl-dodecane | 0.17 (0.19) | 0.30 (0.10) | 0.23 (0.09) | ||
Tridecane | 0.55 (0.62) | 0.79 (0.35) | 0.58 (0.20) | ||
2,3,5,8-Tetramethyl-decane | 0.19 (0.19) | 0.23 (0.08) | 0.20 (0.06) | ||
Tetradecane | 0.52 (0.50) | 0.61 (0.22) | 0.48 (0.14) | ||
Pentadecane | 0.36 b (0.66) | 0.57 ab (0.13) | 1.18 a (0.75) | KW; LDA | 0.013 |
2,6,10-Trimethyl-tetradecane | 0.07 (0.08) | 0.10 (0.03) | 0.08 (0.05) | ||
Hexadecane | 0.21 (0.21) | 0.28 (0.06) | 0.20 (0.06) | ||
Heptadecane | 0.03 b (0.03) | 0.28 a (0.10) | 0.00 b (0.00) | KW; LDA | 0.001 |
Thiols | |||||
2-Ethyl-1-hexanethiol | nd | nd | nd | ||
2-Methyl-2-heptanethiol | nd | nd | nd | ||
Esters | |||||
Pentanoic acid,2,2,4-trimethyl-3-hydroxy-, isobutyl ester | 0.06 (0.09) | 0.08 (0.08) | 0.15 (0.09) | ||
Carbamodithioic acid, diethyl-, methyl ester | 0.24 (0.27) | 0.35 (0.14) | 0.14 (0.14) | ||
Dimethyl phtalate | 4.42 (4.74) | 5.73 (1.43) | 4.70 (0.92) | ||
Pentanoic acid, 2,2,4-trimethyl-3-carboxyisopropy, isobutyl ester | 0.00 (0.01) | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.00) | ||
Lactone | |||||
γ-nonalactone | 0.12 b (0.12) | 0.20 a (0.07) | 0.09 b (0.03) | KW; LDA | 0.046 |
Acid | |||||
Dodecanoic acid | 0.00 (0.01) | 0.00 (0.02) | 0.00 (0.00) | ||
Nitrile | |||||
4-Cyano-cyclohexene | 0.00 (0.23) | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.16 (0.16) | ||
Azide | |||||
2-Azido-2,4,4,6,6-pentamethyl-heptane | 0.15 (0.26) | 0.05 (0.05) | 0.15 (0.11) | ||
Unknown | |||||
Unknown (RT:17.96 min) | 0.00 b (0.00) | 0.00 b (0.00) | 0.00 a (0.00) | KW; LDA | 0.040 |
Unknown (RT:23.76 min) | 0.01 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.09 (0.07) | LDA | |
Unknown (RT:28.62 min) | 0.00 a (0.00) | 0.00 b (0.00) | 0.00 a (0.00) | KW; LDA | 0.012 |
Unknown (RT:37.40 min) | 0.00 (0.02) | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.00) | LDA |
C 1 | SP 1 | HI 1 | Statistical Analysis | p-Level | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alcohols | |||||
2-Methoxy-ethanol | 3.43 (2.11) | 1.62 (1.58) | 1.71 (1.10) | ||
1-Penten-3-ol | 3.98 (2.84) | 2.93 (1.30) | 2.58 (2.49) | ||
1-Pentanol | 8.88 a (5.76) | 9.89 a (3.72) | 2.02 b (1.08) | KW | 0.016 |
1-Hexanol | 4.20 a (2.59) | 4.69 a (2.72) | 1.53 b (0.38) | KW; LDA | 0.003 |
1-Heptanol | 1.44 (0.83) | 2.49 (0.86) | 1.52 (0.49) | ||
1-Octen-3-ol | 30.8 a (13.7) | 36.0 a (9.44) | 11.6 b (0.93) | KW; LDA | 0.001 |
2-Ethyl-2-hexenol | nd | nd | nd | ||
4-Ethyl-cyclohexanol | 4.39 ab (4.39) | 6.30 a (1.65) | 2.53 b (0.60) | KW | 0.009 |
2-Ethyl-1-hexanol | 12.2 (3.02) | 19.4 (4.95) | 20.3 (2.75) | ||
2-Ethyl-1-decanol | 3.38 (1.66) | 3.90 (1.99) | 4.78 (1.32) | ||
2-Octen-1-ol | 0.32 (0.32) | 1.34 (1.34) | 1.53 (0.73) | ||
1-Octanol | 4.05 ab (2.02) | 4.83 a (1.15) | 2.61 b (0.71) | KW | 0.045 |
Benzenemethanol,α,α-dimethyl | 0.21 (0.21) | 0.81 (0.37) | 0.68 (0.20) | ||
(Z)-2-Nonen-1-ol | 4.80 ab (1.53) | 6.52 a (1.95) | 4.17 b (1.06) | KW | 0.041 |
1-Nonanol | 0.05 (0.05) | 0.24 (0.24) | 0.24 (0.16) | ||
Aldehydes | |||||
Pentanal | 8.04 a (3.71) | 7.40 ab (2.21) | 2.85 b (1.23) | KW | 0.026 |
Hexanal | 283.7 a (135.8) | 230.5 a (123.7) | 44.7 b (20.8) | KW; LDA | 0.001 |
Heptanal | 5.64 a (2.44) | 9.90 a (3.12) | 2.30 b (0.51) | KW; LDA | 0.002 |
Methional | 0.20 (0.20) | 0.08 (0.08) | 0.27 (0.15) | ||
2-Heptenal | 0.71 a (0.42) | 0.54 a (0.25) | 0.08 b (0.07) | KW; LDA | 0.001 |
Benzaldehyde | 3.07 (1.31) | 2.71 (0.57) | 3.14 (0.84) | ||
Octanal | 16.0 a (6.11) | 15.8 a (6.35) | 6.18 b (1.36) | KW; LDA | 0.004 |
2-Octenal | 1.23 b (0.68) | 3.02 ab (1.22) | 3.50 a (1.13) | KW | 0.045 |
Nonanal | 24.8 a (8.06) | 31.6 a (8.50) | 11.8 b (2.52) | KW; LDA | 0.008 |
(E)-2-Nonenal | 0.53 (0.26) | 0.54 (0.13) | 0.33 (0.05) | ||
(Z)-4-Decenal | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.28 (0.10) | 0.23 (0.09) | ||
Decanal | 0.87 a (0.25) | 0.96 a (0.37) | 0.09 b (0.09) | KW | 0.008 |
(E)-2-Decenal | 0.06 ab (0.06) | 0.19 a (0.07) | 0.00 b (0.00) | KW; LDA | 0.003 |
(E,E)-2,4-Decadienal | 0.06 (0.06) | 0.09 (0.04) | 0.03 (0.03) | ||
(E)-2-Undecenal | 0.00 ab (0.00) | 0.07 b (0.07) | 0.00 a (0.00) | KW | 0.022 |
Dodecanal | 0.05 (0.05) | 0.04 (0.04) | 0.00 (0.00) | ||
Tridecanal | nd | nd | nd | ||
Tetradecanal | nd | nd | nd | ||
Ketones | |||||
2-Heptanone | 0.35 (0.31) | 0.28 (0.18) | 0.21 (0.08) | ||
Butyrolactone | 0.42 (0.40) | 0.97 (0.72) | 0.24 (0.16) | ||
2-Methyl-6-heptanone | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.00) | ||
2-Nonanone | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.00) | ||
Hydrocarbons | |||||
Toluene | 0.17 a (0.17) | 0.03 ab (0.03) | 0.00 b (0.00) | KW | 0.048 |
1,2,4-Trimethyl-cyclopentane | 0.68 (0.68) | 0.32 (0.23) | 0.16 (0.16) | ||
Propyl-cyclohexane | 0.35 (0.28) | 0.34 (0.07) | 0.27 (0.08) | ||
4-Methyl-nonane | 0.00 b (0.00) | 0.00 b (0.00) | 0.22 a (0.16) | KW; LDA | 0.002 |
2,2,6-trimethyl-octane | 0.00 a (0.00) | 0.00 ab (0.00) | 0.48 b (0.48) | KW; LDA | 0.004 |
2,2,4,6-Pentamethyl-heptane | 53.5 a (35.0) | 25.8 a (4.86) | 19.3 b (6.90) | KW | 0.011 |
Decane | 4.24 a (2.96) | 2.43 a (1.59) | 1.50 b (0.44) | KW | 0.034 |
2,2,4,4-Tetramethyl-octane | 4.34 (1.86) | 1.24 (1.24) | 0.73 (0.73) | ||
2,6,7-Trimethyl-decane | 1.43 b (1.43) | 8.24 a (2.20) | 10.8 a (3.84) | KW; LDA | 0.000 |
2-Methyl-decane | 0.00 b (0.00) | 2.42 a (0.95) | 3.18 a (1.27) | KW; LDA | 0.000 |
5-Undecene | 0.29 (0.29) | 2.37 (1.33) | 2.50 (1.09) | ||
Undecane | 1.57 a (1.46) | 0.12 b (0.08) | 0.09 b (0.04) | KW | 0.024 |
2,8-dimethyl-4-methylene-nonane | 0.00 b (0.00) | 0.07 ab (0.07) | 0.20 a (0.19) | KW | 0.029 |
Pentyl-cyclohexane | 0.28 (0.24) | 0.39 (0.12) | 0.64 (0.21) | ||
3-Methylene-undecane | 0.25 (0.23) | 0.26 (0.14) | 0.39 (0.14) | ||
Dodecane | 0.93 (0.79) | 0.15 (0.14) | 0.09 (0.09) | ||
2,6,11-trimethyl-dodecane | 0.05 (0.05) | 0.03 (0.03) | 0.00 (0.00) | ||
Tridecane | 0.50 (0.29) | 0.28 (0.07) | 0.25 (0.11) | ||
2,3,5,8-tetramethyl-decane | 0.02 (0.02) | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.01 (0.01) | ||
Tetradecane | 0.30 (0.09) | 0.32 (0.07) | 0.22 (0.05) | ||
Pentadecane | 0.21 (0.08) | 0.24 (0.10) | 0.24 (0.09) | ||
2,6,10-trimethyl-tetradecane | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.00) | ||
Hexadecane | 0.12 (0.07) | 0.14 (0.08) | 0.08 (0.03) | ||
Heptadecane | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.05 (0.05) | 0.00 (0.00) | ||
Thiols | |||||
2-Ethyl-1-hexanethiol | 0.58 b (0.58) | 5.86 a (1.33) | 8.94 a (3.24) | KW | 0.009 |
2-Methyl-2-heptanethiol | 4.48 b (1.00) | 7.29 ab (1.64) | 9.68 a (2.53) | KW | 0.009 |
Esters | |||||
Pentanoic acid,2,2,4-trimethyl-3-hydroxy-, isobutyl ester | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.00) | ||
Carbamodithioic acid, diethyl-, methyl ester | nd | nd | nd | ||
Dimethyl phtalate | 1.85 (0.53) | 1.93 (0.95) | 1.35 (0.41) | ||
Pentanoic acid, 2,2,4-trimethyl-3-carboxyisopropyl, isobutyl ester | 0.04 (0.04) | 0.10 (0.06) | 0.07 (0.04) | ||
Lactone | |||||
γ-Nonalactone | nd | nd | nd | ||
Acid | |||||
Dodecanoic acid | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.00) | KW | 0.040 |
Nitrile | |||||
4-Cyano-cyclohexene | 4.35 a (2.31) | 0.98 ab (0.98) | 0.31 b (0.31) | KW | 0.041 |
Azide | |||||
2-Azido-2,4,4,6,6-pentamethyl-heptane | nd | nd | nd | ||
Unknown | |||||
Unknown (RT = 13.40 min) | 0.35 a (0.22) | 0.57 a (0.33) | 0.00 b (0.00) | KW; LDA | 0.006 |
Unknown (RT = 15.26 min) | 1.78 b (1.06) | 8.07 a (2.91) | 10.2 a (4.58) | KW; LDA | 0.000 |
Unknown (RT = 16.51 min) | 0.30 a (0.30) | 0.00 b (0.00) | 0.00 ab (0.00) | KW | 0.020 |
Unknown (RT = 18.15 min) | 0.26 ab (0.26) | 0.30 a (0.16) | 0.00 b (0.00) | KW | 0.045 |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Gkarane, V.; Ciulu, M.; Altmann, B.A.; Schmitt, A.O.; Mörlein, D. The Effect of Algae or Insect Supplementation as Alternative Protein Sources on the Volatile Profile of Chicken Meat. Foods 2020, 9, 1235. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091235
Gkarane V, Ciulu M, Altmann BA, Schmitt AO, Mörlein D. The Effect of Algae or Insect Supplementation as Alternative Protein Sources on the Volatile Profile of Chicken Meat. Foods. 2020; 9(9):1235. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091235
Chicago/Turabian StyleGkarane, Vasiliki, Marco Ciulu, Brianne A. Altmann, Armin O. Schmitt, and Daniel Mörlein. 2020. "The Effect of Algae or Insect Supplementation as Alternative Protein Sources on the Volatile Profile of Chicken Meat" Foods 9, no. 9: 1235. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091235