Current Trends in Food Processing By-Products as Sources of High Value-Added Compounds in Food Fortification
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Characterization of Food Processing By-Products Based on Their Nutritional Benefit, Treatment, and Food Application
2.1. Protein
2.2. Fiber
By-Products | Ingredient Preparation | Food Application | Properties | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Grape pomace | Addition (or not) of lyoprotectors → freeze drying → grinding | Gluten-free cookies (10–20% enrichment) Filling (17.2 g pomace flour) | ↑ Fiber, protein, fat; ↑ sensory properties | [114] |
Carrot pomace | Air drying (60 °C, 12 h) → grinding (250 mm) | Muffins (5–20% enrichment) | ↑ Crude fiber, ↑ firmness, ↑ taste, ↑ appearance (10% the best sensory results) | [109] |
Coconut residue | Drying → grinding | Spread (16% enrichment) | ↑ Protein, fiber, good spreadability, ↑ sensory acceptability | [92] |
Banana peel | Disinfection → drying (63 °C, 24 h) → grinding (0.8 mm) | Biscuits (10–20% enrichment) | ↑ Fiber (+20% at 10%), ↑ dark color, good sensory acceptability (10% maximum) | [98] |
Bread (10% enrichment) | ↑ Fiber (+12.5%) | |||
Pasta (5–10% enrichment) | ↑ Fiber (+71.4% at 10%) | |||
Hemp seed meal | Fat extraction (cold press) → grinding | Gnocchi (5–20% enrichment) | ↑ Fiber (source of fiber claim, >10%), ↑ cooking loss, ↓ cooking resistance, ↓ sensory acceptability (bitter taste, odor) | [100] |
Pineapple peel, banana peel, and pumpkin seed | Banana, pineapple: cutting → sanitation → drying (60 °C, 8 h) → grinding Pumpkin seed: roasting (15 min) → grinding | Gluten-free muffins (17% enrichment) | ↑ Fiber, good sensory acceptability (100% pineapple peel; 50% pineapple peel; 50% pumpkin seed) | [97] |
Grape pomace and skin | Grape by-products obtained commercially | Frankfurt and Spanish sausage (0.5% grape skin, 3–6% inulin, 0.5–1% β-glucan) | ↓ Fat reduction, ↓ boar taint, ↓ brightness, ↓ hardness | [115] |
Male date palm flowers | Drying (40 °C, 24 h) → grinding | Biscuits (3–9% enrichment) | ↑ Fiber (source of fiber claim, >6%), darkness, hardness, good sensory acceptability (6% maximum) | [93] |
Walnut oil cake | Fat extraction → grinding (0.8 mm) | Macarons (10–50% enrichment) | ↑ Fiber, TPC, antioxidant capacity; ↓ sensory acceptability (10% maximum) ↓ costs | [101] |
Brewery bagasse | Cooking (20 min, 100 °C) → filtration (residue) → drying (60 °C) → grinding (1 mm) | Bread (6% enrichment) | ↑ Fiber | [80] |
Jackfruit core | Pectin extraction: drying (60 °C, 20–24 h) → grinding → water dispersion (1:29) → acid extraction (pH 2, 80 °C, 105 min) → filtration → ethanol precipitation → drying (45 °C, overnight) → grinding | Vegetable soup | ↑ Sensory properties | [105] |
Tomato seed and skin, peppers, placenta | Drying (30–40 °C, 17 h) → grinding (0.25 mm) | Bread (3–12% enrichment) | ↑ Fiber, WAC, dough development, softening; ↓ stability time, ↑ redness and yellowness | [96] |
Celery root peel | Grinding → water dispersion (1:5) → homogenization → US extraction (25 kHz frequency, 40–60 °C, 40–60% power level, 10–30 min) → distillation (75–85 °C, 1–6 h) → refrigeration (4 °C) | Ayran Turkish beverage (15–62% enrichment) | ↑ Pectin, sensory and structural properties; ↑ flavor, WAC, viscosity; ↓ color, phase separation; ↑ shelf life | [102] |
Sugar beet pulp | Sucrose extraction in water (75 °C, 45 min) → filtration → cooling → bleaching (pH 11, 120 min) → fiber extraction (pH 6.5) → saponins removal (water: ethanol dispersion 1:4, overnight) → pectin removal (pH 1.6, 90 °C, 3 h) → filtration → ethanol dispersion (1:4, pH 3, 24 h) → filtration, rinsing → boiling (20 min, pH 6.5) → air drying → grinding (1 mm) | Gluten-free muffins (0.2–0.4% enrichment) depectinized or not-depectinized ingredient | ↑ Viscosity, hardness (with pectin); ↑ fiber, swelling capacity, water and oil binding capacity (w/o pectin) | [104] |
Paprika, pitted pepper, tomato pomace | Not specified | Bread (3–12% enrichment) | ↓ Gluten network strength | [108] |
Carrot pomace and beetroot– apple (7:3) pomace | Drying (40 °C) → grinding (0.4 mm) | Pasta (10–30% enrichment) | ↑ Fiber, ↑ WAC (carrot pomace), ↑ technological and sensory (color, texture) properties | [94] |
Apple and blackcurrant pomace | Obtained commercially | Freeze-dried snacks (2% enrichment) | ↓ Porosity, hygroscopicity; ↑ brittle and fragile texture, color changes | [110,111] |
Non-compliant broccoli and carrots and pomace | Washing → cutting → steam-blanching → (juice extraction) → freeze drying → grinding (0.8 mm) | Extruded snacks (3% enrichment with pomace, 20–100% enrichment with whole vegetable powder) | ↓ Starch content, ↑ fiber, ↓ phenols, ↓ expansion volume | [99] |
Orange and apple pomace, tomato peel, pepper peel, prickly pear peel, and prickly pear seed peel | Drying → grinding (0.5 mm) → pectin extraction: acid extraction (2 g sample +40 mL HCl, 90 °C, 45 min) → filtration (removal of insoluble material) → pectin precipitation: 95% ethanol dispersion (1:2), overnight → pectin purification: 70% ethanol dispersion (x2) → collection of the precipitate → drying (65 °C) | Gluten-free bread (2.5–7.5% enrichment) | ↑ Dough height, ↑ CO2 production and retention, ↑ specific volume | [103] |
Pea | Pea fiber obtained commercially | Bread (3–7% enrichment) | ↑ Fermentation, ↑ CO2 production | [107] |
Oil palm empty fruit bunch | Cleaning → drying (60 °C, 24 h) → grinding (0.2 mm) → α-cellulose extraction: NaCl dispersion + acetic acid (1:50, pH 4, 70–80 °C, 2 h, x 5) → rinsing→ drying (60 °C, overnight) → NaOH dispersion (1:25, 2 h, room T °C) → filtration→ washing→ drying (60 °C, 24 h) → carboxymethyl cellulose extraction: aqueous-alkaline dispersion (1:2), isopropyl alcohol addition (1 h, room T °C) → monochloroacetate addition (45 °C, 3 h) → pH adjustment with glacial acetic acid (neutral) → soaking in methanol (to remove impurities) → purification in ethanol | Low-fat ice cream (0.3% enrichment) | ↓ Viscosity, hardness; ↓ overrun | [106] |
By-Products | Ingredient Preparation | Food Application | Properties | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Shrimp and crab shells | Chitosan provided commercially with a deacetylation degree of 80–95% | Wine clarification | ↑ Faster and greater sedimentation | [112] |
Asian tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) shells | Shells drying → milling (710 µm) → chitosan extraction → demineralization (1 M HCl) → centrifugation → deacetylation: chitin conversion to chitosan using 60% NaOH (w/v) Chitosan film: 1 g chitosan + water (containing 1% acetic acid) → glycerol (plasticizer) → protein hydrolysates → drying | Biodegradable film | Excellent lipid oxidation-delaying capacity | [44] |
2.3. Bioactive Compounds
3. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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By-Products | Ingredient Preparation | Food Application | Properties | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Artichoke bracts and tomato | Non-thermal patented treatment (Patent n°001426984) → freeze drying | Fresh pasta (3% enrichment) | Good protein network, ↑ sensory acceptability | [77] |
Pepper placenta, pepper defatted seeds, tomato seed/skin | Air drying (17 h, 30–40 °C) → fat extraction (from seeds, solvent) → grinding | Pasta (10–30% enrichment) | ↑ Protein, fiber | [28] |
Broccoli leaf | Blanching (hot water, 1 min) → freeze drying → grinding | Pasta (2.5–5% enrichment) | ↑ AA composition, ↑ cooking loss | [23] |
Broccoli leaf | Blanching (hot water, 1 min) → freeze drying → grinding (0.6 mm) | Gluten-free bread (5% enrichment) | ↑ Protein, minerals, ↑ antioxidant activity and anti-AGE activity, ↑ specific volume, bake loss | [24] |
Cauliflower stems, leaves, stalks | Blanching (2–3 min) → drying (60 °C, 16 h) → grinding (0.8 mm) | Muffins (10–30% enrichment) | ↑ Protein, fiber, TPC, TFC, antioxidant activity, ↑ dark color, ↑ hardness, ↓ specific load volume, chewiness, springiness, cohesiveness, ↓ sensory acceptability (max 10%) | [25] |
Mushroom stems | Freeze drying → grinding (0.25 mm) → ergosterol removal: dispersion (3:100) in 96% ethanol (residue) → drying (30 °C, 72 h) | Spray-dried emulsions (5% enrichment) | ↑ Viscosity, stability. ↑ yield, ↓ oxidation | [78] |
Broken cashew kernels | Fat extraction (solvent) → grinding (0.25 mm) → water dispersion (1:15) → isoelectric precipitation (pH 3–4.5, 15 min) → drying | Vegan burgers (27% replacement) | ↓ Solubility, good sensory acceptability | [30] |
Black gram by-product | Milling → fractionation (0.4–0.8 mm) | Extrudates | ↑ WAC, ↑ starch digestibility, ↓ phenolics (flavonoids, proanthocyanidins, saponins) | [26] |
Quinoa okara | Water dispersion (1:10) → alkaline extraction (pH 9, 30 min, 55 °C) → US precipitation (75% amplitude, 30 s on—15 s off, 10 min) → air drying | Emulsions (2–6% enrichment) | ↑ Protein, fiber, ↑ ES, ↓ particle size | [18] |
Soy okara | Drying (100 °C, 4 h) → grinding (0.3–0.6 mm) | Gluten-free extruded snacks (8–40% enrichment) | ↑ dark red color, ↓ expansion, ↑ nutritional/sensory quality (29–40%) | [29] |
Aquafaba | Chickpea: broth, 1:2 (w/v) → cooking (100 kPa, 35 min) → freezing (liquid) | Meringue (egg white replacement) | ↑ Foaming and emulsifying properties, hardness, fracturability, similar color, ↓ alveoli | [32] |
Aquafaba | Pre-soaking: chickpea: water, 1:3 (w/w) (5 °C, 16 h) → Cooking: chickpea: water, 1:2 (w/w) (118 °C, 70–80 kPa, 30 min) → filtration → freezing | Emulsion (25–35% replacement) | ↑ Gel-like behavior, ↓ cost | [31] |
Aquafaba | Soaking (chickpea: water, 1:4, w/v, 8–10 h) → cooking (chickpea: water, 1–5, w/w, 45 min) → cooling → filtration (liquid) → freezing | Whipped cream (egg white replacement) | Good egg white replacer, ↑ foam particles, ↓ foam stability, ↓ hardness, gumminess | [79] |
Walnut cake and sesame cake | Fat extraction → grinding | Low-fat mayonnaise (2–4%) | ↓ Carbohydrate, ↑ protein, fiber, ↑ ES, ↓ hardness, adhesiveness, ↑ sensory properties | [15] |
Soybean extruded-expelled meal | Water dispersion (1:10) → sterilization (15 min, 120 °C) → fermentation → freeze drying | Gluten-free bread (6% enrichment) | ↑ Protein, fiber (cellulose lignin), ↑ specific volume, ↑ iron bio-accessibility, ↑ crumb color, ↑ aeration | [13] |
Durum wheat cake | Fat extraction (solvent) → air classification (grader wheel speed 3000 rpm, airflow 50 m3/h) | Snack protein bar (10–50% enrichment) | ↑ Protein and fiber, ↓ fat, ↑ firmness, ↑ yellowness, ↑ caramel flavor | [22] |
Coconut oil by-product | Fat extraction (cold press) → grinding → water dispersion (1:10) (60 °C, 1 h) → homogenization (10,000 rpm, 5 min) → US (405 W, 2.52 min) → filtrated liquid | Full-fat and low-fat vegan ice-cream (1–3% enrichment) | ↑ Protein and fat, ↓ cost | [20] |
Peanut meal | Fat extraction (press) | Gluten-free snacks (26% enrichment) | ↑ Protein, ↑ shelf life, ↑ crispiness | [14] |
Rapeseed press cake | Fat extraction (cold press) → water dispersion (1:9) → alkaline extraction (pH 10.5, 4 h) → isoelectric precipitation (pH 3–6.5) → freeze drying | Emulsions (0.05–5%) | ↑ ES (pH 5–6), ↑ protein yield (pH 4.2), ↓ droplet size (pH 6–6.5) | [17] |
Spent brewer’s grain | Cooking (20 min, 100 °C) → filtration → homogenization → pasteurization (5 min, 80 °C) | Protein beverage | ↑ Protein | [80] |
Spent brewer’s yeast | Vacuum drying (40 °C, −0.7 bar) → grinding → water dispersion (1 h) → alkaline treatment (pH 9–12, 20–25 °C, 2 h) | Emulsions (20% enrichment) | ↑ Mannoprotein solubility, ↑ viscosity, ↑ structure stability, color changes | [19] |
By-Products | Ingredient Preparation | Food Application | Properties | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Tilapia head | Removal of non-collagenous protein and fat with 1 mol/L of NaOH → mineral removal with 0.2 mol/L of EDTA → different extraction methods: (a) Hot water-pretreated gelatin (HWG) (b) Acetic acid-pretreated gelatin (AAG) (c) Sodium hydroxide-pretreated gelatin (SHG) (d) Pepsin enzyme-pretreated gelatin (PEG) | Fish oil emulsions with gelatin solutions (2–10 mg/mL) | (1) Gel strength: PEG > AAG > HWG > SHG (2) Foaming properties, emulsion viscosity, emulsion activity, and emulsion stabilization ability: PEG > HWG ≥ AAG > SHG | [45] |
Fermented fish bone residue (FFBR) | Alkaline treatment (NaOH at 3–6%) and three soaking times (0, 1, and 2 h) | Fish sausage fortification with properly treated bio-calcium (0–36 g) | ↓ Salt content and intensity of fermented fish smell ↑ Calcium and phosphorus contents | [33] |
Seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) heads and bones | Hydrolysates production: alcalase (60 °C for 3 h/pH 7.6) → spray drying Fish meal production: steam boiling (20 min) → pressing → oven drying (60 °C for 30 h) → grinding | Biscuits (2.5–5% enrichment) | ↑ Intensities of color, toasted, and fish flavors; nutritional enrichment in protein and PUFAs | [81] |
Asian tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) shells | Hot air oven drying → US and NADES → subcritical water hydrolysis (150–230 °C, 3 MPa, 20 min) → filtration | Biodegradable film (2–6%) for mackerel fish samples | ↑ Protein (391.96 mg BSA/g) obtained at 190 °C/UPT/NADES; average molecular size of protein molecules < 1000 Da | [44] |
Salmon heads, fins, tails, and viscera | pH shifting: (2 mol/L NaOH) for 30 min/pH 11 → filtration → centrifugation → (2 mol/L HCl) pH 5.5 → precipitation → centrifugation → dialysis → freeze drying | Stabilized gels to encapsulate probiotic emulsions (4%, w/v complex protein solution; 2%, w/v alginate). | ↑ Emulsifying ability and emulsion stability | [50] |
Tuna (Thunnus alalunga) heads | Hydrolysates production: alcalase (60 °C for 3 h/pH 7.6) → spray drying Fish meal production: steam boiled (20 min) → pressing → oven drying (60 °C for 30 h) → grinding | Biscuits (2.5–5% enrichment) | ↑ Protein and moisture | [35] |
Canned sardine waste, mix of sardine meat, and by-products | Hydrolysates production: protamex, 0.50% → incubation (50 °C, 2.5 h) → addition of 0.7%; flavourzyme → adjusted to 15% salt and 14% Aspergillus oryzae koji → fermentation | Fermented fish sauce (50–100%) | No strong or unpleasant flavor, ↑ quality sauce | [38] |
Tra fish (Pangasius hypophthalmus) | Washing (0.3% NaHCO3, 0.3% salt) → slicing → seasoning → grinding → balls forming → blanching (40 °C, 10 min → 2 cooking methods applied for 3–6 min, (1) steaming (100 °C) (2) blanching (80–100 °C) | Fish balls | ↑ Protein content, texture, color | [82] |
Blue whiting (Micromesistius poutassou) | Protein isolate obtained commercially (92%) | Pasta (5–15% enrichment) | ↓ Optimal cooking time, swelling index, and water absorption; ↑ cooking loss; ↑ protein content, firmness, and adhesiveness | [83] |
Abdominal fat of striped catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) | Oil extraction: Abdominal fat washing and draining → chopping → heating (5 h, 70 °C → filtration → oil purification → microencapsulation by spray drying | Microencapsulated fish oil enriched with fish protein concentrates and chlorella powders | Mix of catfish oil, chlorella powder, and striped catfish protein concentrate 40%, 20%, and 40% had the best protein content (17.02%) | [52] |
Fish bones and scales | Scales demineralization of gelatin: washing (10% w/v NaCl) → washing → treated with 2 M lactic acid solution → washed (yield of 76%) Flour: boiling bones for 30 min → drying (90 °C, 24 h) → grinding (0.6 mm) | High-protein financier and deep-fried puffed (5 g gelatin), panna cotta (6 g gelatin), whipped cream (24.6 g gelatin) | ↑ Protein concentration | [84] |
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and croaker (Cynoscion virescens) | Pressure-cooked → pressed → ground → drying → re-grinding | Instant food products and seasoned flours | ↑ Protein content (55.41–39.86%) of Nile tilapia backbone and head flour | [58] |
Parrotfish (Chlorurus sordidus) head | Enzymatic hydrolysis (chopped head mixed with water (1:2), neutral pH with 0.2 N NaOH → conditioning (50 °C, 5 min) → flavourzyme (0.2 AU/g) addition → incubation → inactivation/heat → centrifugation → spray drying | Yoghurt (0.1–3% enrichment) | Best enrichment (0.15%) with a viscosity value of 2.432 N·s/m2, syneresis 49.67%, WHC 37.4%, pH 4.36, TTA 0.76%, color L* 74.55, color a* −3.76, color b* 8.2 | [41] |
Pink perch (Nemipterus japonicus) head and viscera | Enzymatic hydrolysis (alcalase, 58 °C, 85 min → inactivation/heat → centrifugation → freeze drying → microencapsulation → freeze drying | Soup fortification (15% protein + 11% protein hydrolysate, microencapsulated protein hydrolysate (27%), and sun-dried whole fish powder (16%) | ↑ Overall acceptability | [36] |
Pink perch (Nemipterus japonicus) | Enzymatic hydrolysis (alcalase, 57.9 °C, 85.8 min, 0.15% (v/w) E/S ratio) → freeze drying → microencapsulation | Microencapsulation of surimi by-product | High yield (17%), good functional properties, and moderate antioxidant activity;↑ amount of essential amino acid (35%), ↓ bitterness and odor | [47] |
Pangas (Pangasius pangasius) | Alkaline extraction and precipitation | Fish sausages (2.5–10% enrichment) | ↑ Crude protein and lipid content, ↓ gel strength | [34] |
Roe, milt, and liver of plaice (Pleuronectes platessa), herring (Clupea harengus), and cod (Gadus morhua) | Washing → mixing →cooking | Fish pate | ↑ Acceptability, ↑ protein content (21%) in roe pate | [85] |
Sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) | Dipped in saline solution 8% → dried (60 °C/24 h) | Pasta (10% enrichment) | ↑ Protein, fat, fiber, EPA, DHA; ↑ nutritional availability after cooking | [54] |
Sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) | Dipped in saline solution 8% → dried (60 °C/24 h) | Pasta (10% enrichment) | ↓ Texture properties except for adhesiveness, ↑ Nutritional profile, low impact on the technological quality | [86] |
Chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus) tail | Minced fresh tail offcuts | Ready-to-eat fish paste (3.5–61.1%) | Paste with 61.1%: ↑ overall acceptability, flavor, color, texture, crude protein; ↓ crude fat percentage | [87] |
Carp skins (Cyprinus carpio) | Gelatin extraction: 2.6% NaCl → filtration → freeze dying Hydrolysate production: protamex, alcalase, neutrase and flavourzyme → enzyme inactivation → centrifugation → SDS-PAGE separation → freeze drying | Snack | ↑ Nutritional value and antioxidant power, good sensory qualities | [39] |
Sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) | Dipped in saline solution 8% → drying (60 °C/24 h) | Fresh pasta (10% enrichment) | ↑ Nutritional values, ↑ protection against oxidation, ↑ ω-3 and ω-6, adequate sensory profiles | [55] |
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and cod (Gadus morhua) backbones | Enzymatic hydrolysis, direct protein extracts by thermal coagulation without enzyme | Emulsions | ↑ Emulsion activity in the products based on direct protein extraction | [49] |
Abeo rohita head | US enzymatic extraction: mincing → pH adjusted (2 M NaOH) → US → pH 7.5 (2 M NaOH or 2 M HCl) → protamex incubation → inactivation → centrifugation → freeze drying | Umami compounds | ↑ Efficiency of extraction best results at degree hydrolysis (22.73%) and extraction yield (76.34%) of umami extract achieved with a liquid/solid ratio of 3 (v/w), US time 19.20 min, hydrolysis time 140.45 min | [43] |
Sardinella aurita | Protein isolates by alkaline process: homogenization → adjusting pH 11.0 (2 N NaOH) → centrifugation → precipitation (2 N HCl) → centrifugation → adjusting pH 7 → spray drying | Stabilized microencapsulated corn oil | ↑ Encapsulation efficiency, ↑ protection of corn oil, ↑ best ratio protein isolates and maltodextrin 1:4 | [51] |
Brown stripe red snapper (Lutjanus vitta) protein hydrolysate | Enzymatic hydrolysis by alcalase → freeze drying | Deep-fried battered squid with hydrolysate (2–6% and 8%) | ↑ Hardness and crispness, ↓ fat content at 8%, ↓ oil binding capacity, maximum acceptability scores at 4% | [37] |
Surimi by-products | Lyophilized by-product (25 g protein) → alcalase 2.4 L (270,000 U/g) and trypsin (200,000 U/g) → inactivate protease → centrifuge → freeze drying | Gel for silver carb surimi | ↑ Delaying protein oxidation, ↑ initial gelation properties, ↓ loss in gelation and water-holding capacity | [48] |
Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) fin | Hydrolysate by four enzymes (trypsin, alcalase, papain, and neutrase) → freeze drying | Bighead carp (Hypophthalmichthys nobilis) fillets fortified | Trypsin and alcalase hydrolysates had strong ABTS scavenging activity and inhibition of protein oxidation, ↓ lipid oxidation | [40] |
Yellow fin tuna red (Thunnus albacares) | Hydrolysate by papain enzyme: E/S ratio and hydrolysis time as 0.34% and 30 min, respectively at 60 °C and pH of 6.5 → spray drying | Mayonnaise | (50%) Replacement of egg yolk with protein hydrolysate: ↑ desirability, ↑ quality of emulsion, ↓ particle size, ↑ oxidative and physicochemical stability | [42] |
Tilapia, salmon, and tuna | Thawing → washing → cooking (BHT at 0.5 mg/kg) → draining → pressing → milling → oven (60 °C, 24 h) | Cereal bars (90% tilapia protein concentrate and 10% salmon or tuna protein concentrate) | No change in the nutrients, sensory and microbiological profile ↑ mineral matter | [57] |
Priacanthus arenatus | 1st Heating (180 °C, 100 min) → milling → 2nd heating (200 °C, 40 min) → milling | Fish nuggets (10–40%) | 40% fish waste flour: ↑ protein, lipid, and ash ↓ carbohydrate ↑ hue angle, a*, and b* values ↑ overall liking and preference | [56] |
Chinese long snout catfish skin, silver carp skin, salmon skin, and Alaska pollack skin | Soaking with 0.1 M NaOH (pH 7) → soaking in 0.05 M acetic acid (pH 7) → incubation (55 °C) → filtration → freeze drying | Fish oil-loaded gelatin-stabilized emulsions (2–10 mg/mL gelatin) | ↑ Gel strength of catfish and silver carp gelatins than marine fish skin gelatins, ↑ amino acids, ↑ contents of hydrophobic amino acids, ↑ molecular weights | [46] |
Blue shark (Prionace glauca) skin | Pepsin soluble collagen extraction: shark skin mixed with 0.1 M NaOH (remove non-collagenous proteins) → fat removal → extraction (0.5 M acetic acid + 0.2% pepsin) → centrifugation → dialysation → freeze drying | Chitosan–collagen composite coating for red porgy (Pagrus major) meat | ↑ Deterioration indexes at a ratio of 1:0.8 chitosan/pepsin, soluble collagen, ↑ physicochemical indexes | [88] |
By-Products | Ingredient Preparation | Food Application | Properties | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Porcine spleens | Soluble proteins extraction (sodium citrate buffer 0.1 M, pH 5) → centrifuging→ spray drying → washing of insoluble fraction → Pasteurization (80 °C, 45 min) | Sausages | Good functional properties | [70] |
Broiler chicken stomachs | Separation of organic matter (0.2 mol/L NaCl, 0.06 mol/L NaOH, 1:1 petroleum ether/ethanol) → conditioning of collagen (protamex, pH 6.5, 0.1–0.2 wt%) → hot water | Gelatins | ↑ Gelatin yield (65%), gel strength (25–439 Bloom), digestibility (100%), melting point, ↓ ash | [68] |
Trimmings, skin, meat-left-on-bone of chicken drumstick | Homogenization → alkaline extraction (pH 11.5, 10 min) → centrifugation → isoelectric precipitation (pH 5.5, 10 min) → centrifugation | Edible coating | ↑ Moisture content, ↓ fat uptake, ↑frying yield in coated samples | [71] |
Chicken bones | High pressure pretreatment (121 °C, 4 h) → oven drying (55 °C, 5 h) → enzymatic hydrolysis → Maillard reaction → autoclaving (113 °C, 10 min). | Flavoring agents | ↑ Protein and lipid content | [61] |
Chicken feet and head | Grinding → dispersion (1:1) in 10% solution of ascorbic acid → drying | Forcemeat | ↑ Protein, ash content | [72] |
Cattle lips and ears | Cleaning → crushing → enzymatic hydrolysis (protepsin, 1:2 E/S, 0.5–1.5 h, 17–22 °C) → filtration → freeze drying | Forcemeats (5–20% enrichment) | ↑ Moisture-retaining capacity | [69] |
Goat viscera | Cleaning → crushing → homogenization → enzymes inactivation (90 °C, 15 min) → cooling → enzymatic hydrolysis (alcalase, 0.8% E/S), 240 min) → inactivation (90 °C, 15 min) → cooling → Maillard reaction → homogenization → autoclaving (121 °C, 60 min) | Meat flavorings | ↑ Meat aroma | [64] |
By-Products | Ingredient Preparation | Food Application | Properties | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Whey | Heating of milk (70 °C, 20 min) → coagulation (1% citric acid) → filtration | Bread (0–100% water substitution) | ↑ Protein, fat | [76] |
Whey | Whey-protein concentrate (76.8%) obtained commercially | High-protein fat-free dairy desserts | ↑ Texture and appearance, ↓ water activity | [73] |
Sheep and goat cheese whey | Ultrafiltration (40–45 °C, 3.0–3.5 bar → pasteurization (65 °C, 30 min) → homogenization → freezing | Symbiotic kefir | ↑ Protein concentration | [74] |
Cow, sheep, and goat whey | Whey-protein concentrate (>60%) obtained commercially | Probiotic beverages | ↑ Protein, free amino acids, TPC, antioxidant activity | [9] |
By-Products | Ingredient Preparation | Food Application | Properties | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Longan peel | Fat extraction → freeze drying → 80% ethanolic extraction → solvent evaporation | Soybean oil | ↑ Oxidative stability during frying, tocopherols; ↓ peroxides, conjugated dienes, TBARS | [152] |
Black currant pomace | Obtained commercially | Freeze-dried vegetable snacks (1–5% enrichment) | ↑ TPC, antioxidant activity; ↑ dark color, ↓ water activity, ↓ porosity, ↑ hardness, crispiness | [164] |
Pomegranate peels, olive oil pomace, broccoli root and leaves | Broccoli: drying (35 °C, 48 h) → grinding (0.5 mm) pomegranate: washing and disinfection → drying (50 °C, 48 h) → grinding (0.5 mm) olive: drying (35 °C, 72 h) → grinding (0.5 mm) | Fresh pasta (10% broccoli and 3–6% olive and pomegranate by-products enrichment) | ↑ Phenols, flavonoids; ↓ microbial growth; ↑ shelf life | [165] |
Pomegranate peels, olive oil pomace, broccoli root and leaves | Pomegranate, broccoli: washing → disinfection → cutting → drying (45 °C) → grinding (0.5 mm) Olive: drying (45 °C) → grinding (0.5 mm) | Fresh pasta (3–8% enrichment each) | ↑ Phenols, flavonoids, antioxidant activity, shelf life (especially pomegranates) | [166] |
Papaya peel | Washing → cutting → freeze-drying → grinding (<2 mm) → carotenoid extraction: dispersion (1:20) in THF+0.01% BHT+ magnesium carbonate →homogenization → US treatment (30 min) → centrifugation → re-extraction with acetone (pellet) → supernatant collection → diethyl ether addition → organic phase collection → filtration → vacuum drying | HPP-treated microemulsions (7 mg/g soybean/sunflower/coconut oil) | ↓ Particle size, ↑ carotenoid bio-accessibility (sunflower, soybean oil) | [140] |
Coconut husk | Washing → cutting → grinding → MW blanching (2450 MHz–900 W, 40–160 s) → cooling → grinding | Kheer dairy-based dessert (5–15% enrichment) | ↑ Flavor, color (10% maximum) | [122] |
Apple pomace | Drying → milling | Gluten-free bread (5–15% enrichment) | ↑ Phenols, flavonoids, chlorogenic acid, phlorizin; ↑ antioxidant activity; ↑ sensory acceptability | [138] |
Apple pomace | Freeze drying → UV sterilization | Fermented soy milk | ↑ Phenols, ↑ antioxidant activity, ↑ viable cell count | [147] |
Lemon peel | Grinding | Flavoring gel | ↑ thermal stability ↑ safety, quality | [167] |
Mango peel | Cutting → blanching (98 °C, 1 min) → drying (50 °C, 4 h) | Instant drink (2–6% enrichment) | ↑ TPC, vitamin C, ↑ antioxidant activity, ↑ acidity | [120] |
Pomegranate peel, orange juice residue | Pomegranate: drying (40 °C, 48 h) → grinding (0.1 mm) → water dispersion (1:32) → US treatment (50 W, 35 °C, pulse 7 s on—6 s off, 10 min) → homogenization with hydrated orange fibers (1:9) → encapsulation (spray drying) | Cookies (enrichment at 5000 ppm of phenolic concentration) | ↑ Retention of encapsulated phenolics, ↑ antioxidant activity, ↑ bitterness, astringency, ↑ color, odor, ↓ texture | [139] |
Banana, pineapple, squash, mango, calamansi, potato peels | Washing → cutting → drying | Distilled spirit (sample-to-solvent, 1:10, solvent: 40% ethanol/gin/vodka/tequila) | ↑ TPC, DPPH (mango), gin/vodka good substitute for food-compatible solvents | [149] |
Star fruit peel | Drying (40 °C, 24 h) → grinding → phenol extraction (sample: acetone, 1:20, 4–24 h, 30 °C, x2) > solvent evaporation | Sesame oil (200–1000 ppm) | ↑ Oxidative stability during storage and frying (1000 ppm), good alternative to synthetic antioxidants | [153] |
Non-compliant melon | Washing → peeling → deseeding → cutting → juice extraction → decantation (1 °C, 24 h, SO2 addition) → must | Melon-based wine | ↑ TPC, antioxidants, ↑ fruity, floral aroma | [150] |
Grape seed, olive stone | Flour obtained commercially | Crackers (10–30% enrichment) | ↑ TPC, ↑ dark color, ↓ sensory acceptance, ↓ hardness (olive stone) | [168] |
Olive mill wastewater | Filtration → liquid-liquid extraction with ethyl acetate (1:1–5, 4–70 °C, 0.25–24 h) → organic phase separation → solvent evaporation | Olive and sunflower oil (0.3% enrichment) | ↑ lipophilicity and bioactivity of phenols, ↑ thermal stability, ↓ oxidation | [132] |
Olive wastewater (oil + brine) | Centrifugation | Stuffing or paste for olives (63% enrichment oil fraction) and pickled vegetable (brine) | ↑ Phenols, ↑ sensory properties | [169] |
Olive leaf | Drying (T °C room, 15 d) → dispersion (1:10) in vinegar → homogenization → maceration (T °C room, 5 d) → filtration | Low-fat vegan mayonnaise | ↑ Phenols (oleuropein), ↑ oxidative stability, ↑ shelf life, ↑ color, taste | [133] |
Olive leaf | Washing → drying (120 °C, 8 min) → grinding → water dispersion (1:20→ US extraction → filtration (liquid extract) → freeze drying | Ripened sausage (0.02–0.08%) | ↑ Weight loss, ↑ oxidative stability, ↓ hardness, ↑ microbial safety, natural additives (nitrite substitute) | [125] |
Red onion peel | Washing → drying (40 °C) → grinding (1 mm) → UV sterilization → dispersion (1:14) in 70% acidified ethanol → US treatment (40 kHz, 25 °C, 40 min, 100 W) → centrifugation (liquid extract) | Ricotta cheese (1–3% enrichment) | ↑ Phytochemical content, ↑ antioxidant activity ↑ texture, color | [170] |
Onion skin | Washing → drying (50 °C, 12 h) → grinding (0.5 mm) | Pasta (2.5–7.5% enrichment) | ↑ Phenol (quercetin, phenolic acids), ↑ antioxidant, anti-inflammatory activity | [136] |
Onion skin | Washing → drying (T °C room, 14 d) → grinding (0.2 mm) | Extrudates (3–9% enrichment) | ↑ Quercetin, ↑ TPC, antioxidant activity | [171] |
Tomato by-products | Dispersion (1:10) in DES-LA (deep eutectic solvents/lactic acid, 1:2) → US (40 kHz, 30 °C, 1–2 h) → centrifugation (liquid extract) → extract: chitosan solution (40:60, w/w) | Edible films (40% liquid extract) | ↑ Thermal stability, hydrophilicity; ↑ free radical scavenging rate, ↓ oxidation, ↑ shelf life | [128] |
Tomato seeds and skin | Blanching → freezing → HPP extraction (by-product+ oil, 300–600 Mpa, 10 min) → agitation (45 °C, 45 min) | Extra virgin olive oil (10–20% enrichment) | ↑ Lycopene recovery, good sensory acceptability (10%) | [135] |
Tomato pomace, linseed meal | Tomato: grinding → drying (45 °C, 10 h) Linseed: cold pressing | Gluten-free pasta (10–15% enrichment) | ↑ Fiber, lipid, tocols, phenols, ↑ antioxidant capacity | [137] |
Artichoke bracts and tomato | Non-thermal patented treatment (Patent n°001426984) → freeze drying | Fresh pasta (3% enrichment) | ↑ Phenols, antioxidant activity | [77] |
Black carrot pomace | Freeze drying → grinding → UV sterilization → dispersion (1:10) in 70% acidified ethanol → US treatment (40 kHz, 25 °C, 40 min, 100 W) → centrifugation (liquid extract) | Yoghurt (1–2% enrichment) | ↑ Nutritional quality, ↑ phytochemicals, antioxidant activity, ↑ color, appealing (2% best formulation) | [143] |
Carrot pomace | Drying (60 °C, 5 h) → grinding (0.4 mm) → water-in-oil emulsion (addition of other ingredients + homogenization 5 min, 20 °C) | Butter (21% enrichment) | ↑ Carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, minerals, ↑ oxidative stability, ↓ microbial growth, ↓ spreadability, good acceptability | [144] |
Red chili by- products | Freeze drying → grinding (0.5 mm) → carotenoid extraction: dispersion (1:100) in 60% acetone-40% petroleum ether (20 min stirring, protect from light) → centrifugation → solvent evaporation | Soybean oil (0.05–0.5 ppm enrichment) | ↓ Oxidation, ↑ thermal stability | [129] |
Bell pepper residue | Drying (60 °C, 16 h) → grinding (0.25 mm) | Sausage (50–270 mg GAE/kg meat) | ↑ Ash, ↓ fat, ↑ lipid oxidative stability (180–2700 mg GAE/kg), natural additives (nitrite substitute) | [172] |
Coffee husk ‘cascara’ | Obtained commercially | Kombucha (10 g/L) | ↑ Phenols, flavonoids, ↑ antioxidant, antibacterial activity, ↓ pH, balanced aroma and taste | [173] |
Outer leaves of lettuce, onion peels, banana peels, whey protein, and brewery yeast | Freeze drying → grinding | Instant soups | ↑ Antioxidant activity, ↑ phenols, flavonoids, hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia, ↑ bone health, ↑ feces weight | [95] |
Beet leaves | Washing → cutting → dispersion (1:50) in 80% ethanol (pH 6, 80 °C, 40 min) → centrifugation → solvent evaporation (40 °C) → resuspension in water | Vegetable smoothie (30% enrichment) | ↑ TPC (+50%), ↑ antioxidant capacity, ↑ shelf life (+1 week), ↑ nutritional retention | [131] |
Green tea leaves and branches, hops | MW hydrodiffusion and gravity/US/MW/ autohydrolysis (ethanol/water, 55–200 °C, 2–120 min) | Gluten-free hydrogel | Wide range of texture properties, ↑ thermal stability | [142] |
Cowpea pod | Sun drying → grinding (0.25 mm) → water dispersion (1:15) → US treatment (20 kHz, 500 W, 10–20 min, 20–80% amplitude) → centrifugation → filtration (liquid) → freeze drying | Hydrogels | ↑ TPC, ↑ antioxidant activity, ↑ beads size, ↓ compactness (in the presence of proteins) | [124] |
Sesame, pomegranate, and grape seed | Grinding (1 mm) → sterilization (110 °C, 10 min, 1.5 atm) | Ice cream (2% enrichment) | ↑ TPC, antioxidant activity (grape seed), ↑ viable probiotics | [146] |
Peanut skin | Grinding (0.4 mm) → dispersion (1:10–30) in 95% ethanol → US treatment (10–60 min) → filtration → solvent evaporation (40 °C) → re-suspension in 95% ethanol | Dipped-bottom mushroom (0.005–0.05 mg/mL) and sacha inchi oil (0.01–0.05–1%) | ↓ Oxidation, ↑ antioxidant activity | [127] |
Rapeseed meal | Grinding (0.32 mm) → dispersion (1:4) in 75% ethanol (T °C room, 30 min, x4) → filtration → vacuum- concentration (50 °C) → freeze drying → phenols extraction: water dispersion (1:50, 20 min) → US treatment (20 kHz, 10–35% amplitude, 2–8 min) → centrifugation → filtration | Rapeseed oil (30% enrichment) | ↓ Oxidation | [130] |
Broccoli stalks, non-compliant carrots | Washing → disinfection → cutting → MW blanching (700 W, 2 min, x2) → cooling in ice → juice extraction | Beverage (82.5% broccoli, 17.5% carrots) (pasteurization, HPP, US treatment) | ↑ Carotenoids, sulfur compounds, ↑ shelf life (HPP, US treatment) | [123] |
Kimchi cabbage leaves and cortex | Steaming (120 °C, 11 min) → drying (80 °C, 48 h) → 0–100% methanol extraction → US treatment (0–30 min, 0–40% amplitude) → centrifugation (liquid) → freeze drying | Nanoparticles | ↑ GLS protection (gastric phase), ↑ GLS release in intestine | [141] |
Broccoli by-product | Obtained commercially | Beer (0.1% enrichment) | ↑ Sulforaphane, ↑ alcohol content, ↓ bitterness, ↑ color, ↑ off-flavors, ↓ sensory properties | [151] |
Non-compliant and broccoli stems | Blanching → freeze drying → grinding(powder) → dispersion (1:15) in 0–50% ethanol (40 °C, 1 h) → centrifugation (liquid extract) | Biscuit (10% flour, 30 mL extract/kg dough) | ↑ Glucosinolates, TPC, carotenoids, color (flour), ↑ stickiness, ↓ workability (liquid extracts) | [121] |
Brassica leaves | Washing → drying (60 °C, overnight) | Kombucha (7 g/L) | ↓ TPC, antioxidant activity (than black tea), ↓ aroma, bitterness, ↑ color, appearance | [148] |
Cauliflower stalks and leaves | Cutting → blanching (100 °C, 5 min) → freeze drying → grinding | Pizza (10–30% enrichment) | ↑ Glucosinolates, carotenoids, phytosterols, good rheological properties (10%) | [16] |
Broccoli stalks | Washing → cutting → brine | Fermented broccoli stalks | Source of phenols and GLS, ↓ broccoli flavor (fermentation), ↓ pH good sensory acceptability | [174] |
Broccoli stem and leaves | Grinding (liquid nitrogen) → freeze drying | Salad dressing (1% enrichment) | ↑ phenols bio-accessibility (modulated the presence of oil) | [145] |
Fruit and vegetable waste | Quercetin extract powder obtained commercially | Bars (0.02–0.08% enrichment) | ↑ Quercetin, TPC, ↑ antioxidant capacity, ↓ water activity, ↑ lightness, hardness, good sensory acceptability (0.06%) | [175] |
Fruit and vegetable by-products | Washing → drying (60 °C, 5 h) → grinding → dispersion (1:3) in 96% ethanol (65 °C, 3 h) → filtration → concentration | Fish meal (300 ppm enrichment coffee sediment extract) | ↑ Antioxidant activity, inhibits lipid oxidation | [126] |
By-Products | Ingredient Preparation | Food Application | Properties | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) by-products | Freeze drying → fat extraction (oil) | Pork sausage | ↑ EPA (4.2%), DHA (22%), ↑ ABTS, DPPH, ↑ overall acceptance, ↑ antimicrobial properties | [154] |
Mullet roe by-products | Three mild processes: pressure (PE) for fresh by-products, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), and solvent extraction (SE) for freeze-dried by-products | Fish oil | ↑ Antioxidant activity, DPPH, ABTS (SFE oil), ↑ oil yield (SE oil), ↑ EPA (20.7%), DHA (24.3%) | [156] |
Fish by-products | Freeze drying → powder → microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) | Bioactive fish oil | ↑ Oil yield (<19 min), no effect on DHA, linoleic, EPA, ↑ antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory activities | [157] |
Catfish by-product | Fat extraction (US treatment) | Nanoemulsions (2 wt% oil) | ↑ Antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory properties, no toxicity against normal skin cells | [161] |
Salmon (Salmo salar) backbones, heads, viscera | Freeze drying → powder → MAE: 14.6 min, 291.9 W, 80.1 g/L for backbones; 10.8 min, 50.0 W, 80.0 g/L for heads; and 14.3 min, 960.6 W, 99.5 g/L for viscera | Bioactive fish oil | ↑ Oil recovery (69% heads, backbone; 92% viscera), ↑ cytotoxic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties | [155] |
Tuna (Thunnus obesus) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) by-product | 4% Saline solution (5 min) → drying (50 °C) → grinding | Pasta (3% enrichment) | ↑ DHA, EPA, cohesiveness (tuna), ↑ brightening (sea bass), ↓ hardness, fracturability, ↓ weight gain, swelling index | [176] |
Northern shrimp (Pandalus borealis) by-product | Wet by-products → oil extraction (Soxhlet, hexane/acetone, 2:3) | Bioactive shrimp oil | ↑ Phospholipids, n-3 PUFA and astaxanthin-esters, ↓ fat accumulation in 3T3-L1 cells, regulated adipogenesis and lipogenesis | [159] |
Sardine (Sardina pilchardus) gill and viscera | Oil extraction (Soxhlet) | Chips (25 mL fish oil to 0.5 kg wheat) | ↑ linoleic, linolenic, EPA, DHA, ↓ reducing triglycerides, LDL cholesterol, ↑ nutritional, antidiabetic, antihyperlipidemic, histoprotective effects | [158] |
Nile perch (Lates niloticus) by-products | Oil extraction → centrifuging (recover of omega-3 FA) | Yoghurt (3.5 g oil) | Omega-3 daily intake was achieved through a single serving (150 g) of fortified yoghurt | [162] |
Tuna, seabass, seabream, wild sardines by-products | Grinding → cooking (95 °C, 12 min → pressing → centrifuged (crude oil) | Crude oils | ↓ Free fatty acid, peroxide, TOTOX, anisidine value (tuna, seabass, seabream) ↑ α-tocopherol (seabass, seabream), ↑ EPA, DHA (32.8% sardine oil) | [160] |
By-Products | Ingredient Preparation | Food Application | Properties | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sweet whey, sweet buttermilk, and skimmed milk | Pasteurization (72 °C, 15 s) → cooling → rennet addition → coagulation → draining → aging (4 °C, 24 h) → churning | Sweet whey fermented milk beverage, sweet buttermilk FMB, and skimmed milk FMB | ↑ Antioxidant properties, ↓ glycemic index, glycemic load | [163] |
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Darko, H.S.O.; Ismaiel, L.; Fanesi, B.; Pacetti, D.; Lucci, P. Current Trends in Food Processing By-Products as Sources of High Value-Added Compounds in Food Fortification. Foods 2024, 13, 2658. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13172658
Darko HSO, Ismaiel L, Fanesi B, Pacetti D, Lucci P. Current Trends in Food Processing By-Products as Sources of High Value-Added Compounds in Food Fortification. Foods. 2024; 13(17):2658. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13172658
Chicago/Turabian StyleDarko, Helen Stephanie Ofei, Lama Ismaiel, Benedetta Fanesi, Deborah Pacetti, and Paolo Lucci. 2024. "Current Trends in Food Processing By-Products as Sources of High Value-Added Compounds in Food Fortification" Foods 13, no. 17: 2658. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13172658
APA StyleDarko, H. S. O., Ismaiel, L., Fanesi, B., Pacetti, D., & Lucci, P. (2024). Current Trends in Food Processing By-Products as Sources of High Value-Added Compounds in Food Fortification. Foods, 13(17), 2658. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13172658