Encapsulation of Bioactive Compounds from Germinated Mung Bean by Freeze-Drying, Release Kinetics, and Storage Stability
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Chemicals and Materials
2.2. Preparation of the Core Material
2.3. Preparation of the Extract Microparticles
2.4. Experimental Design
2.4.1. Optimization of Formulation
2.4.2. Modeling the Release Rate under Different Conditions
2.4.3. The Effect of Storage Conditions
2.4.4. The Effect of Air Relative Humidity
2.5. Analytical Methods
2.5.1. Moisture Content Determination
2.5.2. Water Activity Determination
2.5.3. GABA Content Determination
2.5.4. Total Polyphenol Content Determination
2.5.5. Surface Content of GABA and TPC Determination
2.5.6. Encapsulation Efficiency and Encapsulation Yield
2.5.7. Morphological Analysis
2.5.8. Particle Size Distribution Analysis
2.5.9. Kinetics of Release
2.5.10. Degradation Kinetics of Bioactive Compounds under Various Storage Conditions
2.5.11. Equilibrium Moisture Content Determination
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Fitting the Models
3.2. Encapsulation Efficiency
3.3. Encapsulation Yield
3.4. Overall Optimization and Model Validation
3.5. Particle Morphology and Size Distribution
3.6. Release Kinetics of Bioactive Compounds under Various Conditions
3.7. Degradation Kinetics of Bioactive Compounds under Various Storage Conditions
3.7.1. The Effects of Temperature
3.7.2. The Effects of Air Relative Humidity
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Independent Variable | Coded Variable Level | ||
---|---|---|---|
−1 | 0 | 1 | |
The ratio between two wall materials (X1, v/v) | 40:60 | 50:50 | 60:40 |
The ratio of the extract to wall material (X2, v/v) | 20:100 | 30:100 | 40:100 |
The wall material concentration (X3, %) | 15 | 20 | 25 |
Exp Run a | Patterns | X1 (v/v) | X2 (v/v) | X3 (%) | EE-GABA (%) | EE-TPC (%) | EY-GABA (%) | EY-TPC (%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Exp. | Pred. | Exp. | Pred. | Exp. | Pred. | Exp. | Pred. | |||||
1 | 0++ | 50 | 40 | 25 | 96.50 | 96.47 | 70.27 | 69.31 | 84.59 | 84.21 | 80.16 | 79.91 |
2 | 000 | 50 | 30 | 20 | 97.83 | 97.79 | 75.70 | 75.99 | 87.31 | 86.50 | 82.80 | 82.70 |
3 | +−0 | 60 | 20 | 20 | 94.13 | 94.40 | 67.62 | 66.44 | 84.54 | 84.90 | 81.56 | 80.98 |
4 | 0−− | 50 | 20 | 15 | 95.82 | 95.85 | 65.69 | 66.65 | 80.27 | 80.65 | 75.78 | 76.03 |
5 | +0− | 60 | 30 | 15 | 95.53 | 95.23 | 66.32 | 66.54 | 81.76 | 81.03 | 76.12 | 76.45 |
6 | +0+ | 60 | 30 | 25 | 95.27 | 95.11 | 64.66 | 65.62 | 83.90 | 84.24 | 79.34 | 80.51 |
7 | 0−+ | 50 | 20 | 25 | 95.28 | 95.17 | 67.59 | 67.81 | 83.03 | 82.34 | 81.17 | 80.58 |
8 | 000 | 50 | 30 | 20 | 97.38 | 97.79 | 76.98 | 75.99 | 86.71 | 86.50 | 82.16 | 82.70 |
9 | ++0 | 60 | 40 | 20 | 96.13 | 96.32 | 77.52 | 77.52 | 78.33 | 78.37 | 78.53 | 77.61 |
10 | −+0 | 40 | 40 | 20 | 95.33 | 95.06 | 65.56 | 66.74 | 80.41 | 80.05 | 79.40 | 79.98 |
11 | 000 | 50 | 30 | 20 | 98.15 | 97.79 | 75.29 | 75.99 | 85.49 | 86.50 | 83.14 | 82.70 |
12 | −0− | 40 | 30 | 15 | 94.98 | 95.14 | 64.23 | 63.27 | 76.16 | 75.83 | 76.81 | 75.64 |
13 | −0+ | 40 | 30 | 25 | 94.61 | 94.91 | 67.69 | 67.47 | 83.47 | 84.20 | 80.15 | 79.82 |
14 | 0+− | 50 | 40 | 15 | 96.02 | 96.14 | 67.40 | 67.18 | 73.63 | 74.32 | 75.61 | 76.20 |
15 | −−0 | 40 | 20 | 20 | 95.56 | 95.37 | 75.19 | 75.80 | 78.02 | 77.98 | 76.19 | 77.11 |
Regression Coefficients a | EE-GABA (%) | EE-TPC (%) | EY-GABA (%) | EY-TPC (%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Regression Coefficients | t Ratio | Regression Coefficients | t Ratio | Regression Coefficients | t Ratio | Regression Coefficients | t Ratio | |
ao | 43.03 ** | 5.00 | −85.55 * | −3.04 | −100.29 ** | −4.84 | −61.11 | −2.43 |
Linear | ||||||||
a1 | 1.48 ** | 6.50 | 2.36 * | 3.15 | 3.91 *** | 7.12 | 2.45 * | 3.66 |
a2 | 0.17 | 0.94 | −1.73 * | −2.99 | 2.28 ** | 5.35 | 1.96 * | 3.79 |
a3 | 1.46 * | 3.63 | 12.50 *** | 9.50 | 4.74 ** | 4.90 | 4.84 ** | 4.11 |
Quadratic | ||||||||
a11 | −0.016 *** | −8.05 | −0.032 ** | −4.86 | −0.03 ** | −5.29 | −0.02 * | −3.21 |
a22 | −0.008 ** | −4.12 | −0.012 | −1.86 | −0.04 *** | −7.20 | −0.02 * | −3.09 |
a33 | −0.041 ** | −5.04 | −0.28 *** | −10.42 | −0.10 ** | −5.18 | −0.11 ** | −4.44 |
Interaction | ||||||||
a12 | 0.005 * | 2.83 | 0.05 *** | 7.75 | −0.02 ** | −4.53 | −0.02 * | −2.7 |
a13 | 0.0005 | 0.14 | −0.027 | −1.98 | −0.03 * | −2.72 | −0.0006 | −0.05 |
a23 | 0.0051 | 1.29 | 0.005 | 0.38 | 0.04 ** | 4.32 | −0.004 | −0.36 |
R2 | 0.984 | 0.995 | 0.992 | 0.995 | ||||
Regression p value | 0.0061 | 0.0018 | 0.0011 | 0.0189 | ||||
p-value of lack of fit | 0.517 | 0.266 | 0.513 | 0.110 |
Release Conditions | Zero-Oder | First-Order | Higuchi Model | Korsmeyer–Peppas | Mechanisms | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bioactive Compounds | Temperature (°C) | pH | Ko | R2 | K | R2 | KH | R2 | KM | n | R2 | |
GABA | 25 | 2 | 0.0358 | 0.8430 | 0.0131 | 0.7546 | 0.4646 | 0.9907 | 0.6160 | 0.4331 | 0.9940 | Fickian |
5 | 0.0357 | 0.8635 | 0.0142 | 0.7170 | 0.4407 | 0.9908 | 0.4844 | 0.4777 | 0.9915 | Non-Fickian | ||
8 | 0.0318 | 0.8329 | 0.0124 | 0.7502 | 0.4203 | 0.9890 | 0.5918 | 0.4188 | 0.9915 | Fickian | ||
45 | 2 | 0.0360 | 0.7916 | 0.0130 | 0.6925 | 0.4870 | 0.9783 | 0.7294 | 0.4041 | 0.9859 | Fickian | |
5 | 0.0350 | 0.7746 | 0.0127 | 0.6978 | 0.4816 | 0.9743 | 0.7898 | 0.4923 | 0.9753 | Non-Fickian | ||
8 | 0.0294 | 0.7704 | 0.0116 | 0.7010 | 0.4169 | 0.9746 | 0.7182 | 0.3705 | 0.9877 | Fickian | ||
TPC | 25 | 2 | 0.0204 | 0.8757 | 0.0098 | 0.6204 | 0.1992 | 0.9899 | 0.2779 | 0.4210 | 0.9943 | Fickian |
5 | 0.0207 | 0.8773 | 0.0100 | 0.6175 | 0.2022 | 0.9900 | 0.2761 | 0.4261 | 0.9940 | Fickian | ||
8 | 0.0194 | 0.8644 | 0.0094 | 0.5889 | 0.1912 | 0.9859 | 0.2841 | 0.4053 | 0.9925 | Fickian | ||
45 | 2 | 0.0201 | 0.8774 | 0.0098 | 0.6161 | 0.1967 | 0.9904 | 0.3249 | 0.3800 | 0.9934 | Fickian | |
5 | 0.0211 | 0.8943 | 0.0103 | 0.6542 | 0.2045 | 0.9952 | 0.2525 | 0.4501 | 0.9969 | Non-Fickian | ||
8 | 0.0210 | 0.8653 | 0.0060 | 0.6372 | 0.2063 | 0.9871 | 0.3100 | 0.4034 | 0.9936 | Fickian |
Release Conditions | Zero-Oder | First-Order | Higuchi Model | Korsmeyer–Peppas | Mechanisms | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bioactive Compounds | pH | Ko | R2 | K | R2 | KH | R2 | KM | n | R2 | |
GABA in SGF | 2 | 0.0368 | 0.8031 | 0.0127 | 0.7144 | 0.5020 | 0.9826 | 0.7736 | 0.3972 | 0.9906 | Fickian |
5 | 0.0360 | 0.7813 | 0.0121 | 0.7009 | 0.5102 | 0.9780 | 0.8866 | 0.3684 | 0.9909 | Fickian | |
8 | 0.0360 | 0.8122 | 0.0125 | 0.7306 | 0.4898 | 0.9851 | 0.7560 | 0.3969 | 0.9928 | Fickian | |
GABA in SIF | 2 | 0.0332 | 0.8191 | 0.0125 | 0.7366 | 0.4445 | 0.9860 | 0.6476 | 0.4106 | 0.9920 | Fickian |
5 | 0.0340 | 0.8011 | 0.0125 | 0.7169 | 0.4634 | 0.9819 | 0.7157 | 0.3967 | 0.9900 | Fickian | |
8 | 0.0344 | 0.8116 | 0.0128 | 0.7246 | 0.4592 | 0.9839 | 0.6634 | 0.4127 | 0.9899 | Fickian | |
TPC in SGF | 2 | 0.0207 | 0.8730 | 0.0099 | 0.6210 | 0.2031 | 0.9890 | 0.3181 | 0.3884 | 0.9936 | Fickian |
5 | 0.0197 | 0.8779 | 0.0100 | 0.5809 | 0.1925 | 0.9891 | 0.2911 | 0.3982 | 0.9925 | Fickian | |
8 | 0.0205 | 0.8713 | 0.0097 | 0.6296 | 0.2015 | 0.9890 | 0.3316 | 0.3776 | 0.9938 | Fickian | |
TPC in SIF | 2 | 0.0155 | 0.8418 | 0.0100 | 0.6174 | 0.2022 | 0.9902 | 0.2739 | 0.4280 | 0.9939 | Fickian |
5 | 0.0156 | 0.8509 | 0.0101 | 0.6257 | 0.2027 | 0.9917 | 0.2714 | 0.4302 | 0.9949 | Fickian | |
8 | 0.0147 | 0.8106 | 0.0096 | 0.5901 | 0.1982 | 0.9841 | 0.3006 | 0.4007 | 0.9911 | Fickian |
Kinetic Parameters | GABA | TPC | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
30 °C | 40 °C | 50 °C | 30 °C | 40 °C | 50 °C | |
Degradation rate (k, day−1) | 0.0284 | 0.0316 | 0.0517 | 0.0027 | 0.0057 | 0.0064 |
Half-life (t1/2, day) | 24.41 | 21.94 | 13.41 | 256.72 | 121.60 | 108.30 |
Determination coefficients (R2) | 0.81 | 0.85 | 0.97 | 0.93 | 0.90 | 0.94 |
Activation energy (Ea, kcal) | 5.85 | 10.72 |
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Vu, A.T.; Kha, T.C.; Phan, H.T. Encapsulation of Bioactive Compounds from Germinated Mung Bean by Freeze-Drying, Release Kinetics, and Storage Stability. Foods 2024, 13, 100. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13010100
Vu AT, Kha TC, Phan HT. Encapsulation of Bioactive Compounds from Germinated Mung Bean by Freeze-Drying, Release Kinetics, and Storage Stability. Foods. 2024; 13(1):100. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13010100
Chicago/Turabian StyleVu, Anh Thuy, Tuyen Chan Kha, and Huan Tai Phan. 2024. "Encapsulation of Bioactive Compounds from Germinated Mung Bean by Freeze-Drying, Release Kinetics, and Storage Stability" Foods 13, no. 1: 100. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13010100