1. Introduction
In recent years, extensive research has been undertaken to identify ingredients and components that display some clear physiological activity, namely improving intestinal transit [
1,
2] and the immunological system [
3], or reducing cholesterol [
4], blood glucose [
5], arterial hypertension [
6], and obesity [
7].
The consumption of dietary fibre has potential benefits for human health, such as preventing chronic non-communicable diseases (NCDs) including obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease [
8,
9]. Insoluble fibre prevents constipation, while soluble fibre is positively associated with decreased absorption of cholesterol and glucose at the intestinal level [
10]. Indeed, a high dietary fibre intake has been correlated with a lower glycaemic response in diabetic patients [
11].
Despite the evidence for the benefits of fibre intake, a worldwide fibre deficiency is observed in both developed and underdeveloped countries. A review by [
12] revealed the daily average dietary fibre intake in adults for ten countries (including the USA, UK, and Spain), none of which reached the recommended amount. Although this recommendation varies depending on age and lifestyle, on average, it should be greater than 25 g/day according to the World Health Organization (WHO).
In order to meet the demand of dietary fibre intake, fibre enrichment of food products has been widely proposed as a way to increase its consumption. This is especially appealing since NCDs are the leading causes of death in current times [
13]. Among them, cardiovascular diseases are the most common NCD globally, leading to an estimated 17.8 million deaths in 2017 [
14]. Furthermore, according to research published by the World Health Organization [
13], the prevalence of obesity tripled between 1975 and 2016.
Brewery Spent Grain (BSG) is a by-product obtained during the brewing process of malted barley, with an overall composition in dry matter of fibre (30–50%), protein (19–30%), lipids (10%), and ash (2–5%). The high amount of fibre as well as the high protein content in BSG justifies its use as a functional ingredient in the preparation of food for human consumption, and has resulted in research in the inclusion of BSG as a raw material. To mention some of them, [
15] studied the valorisation of BSG through fibre-enriched egg pasta, reaching an optimised formulation of 6.2% of BSG. It has also been studied together with mushrooms, as an animal protein replacer and fibre-enricher of smoked sausages containing 3–6% of BSG [
16]. Moreover, [
17] obtained promising results for a snack chip containing 40% BSG inclusion.
When formulating products with fibre, the fibre will likely impart a strong flavour, coarse texture, and dry mouthfeel [
18]; therefore, consumers are sometimes reluctant to accept the reduction in sensory quality [
19]. This is especially important if the product is mainly consumed for hedonic pleasure [
20] as in the cases reported by [
21,
22], in which cakes and cookies, respectively, were enriched with fibre by adding fruit pomace and resulted in a reduction in overall acceptability and purchase intention. However, owing to the multiple health benefits derived from fibre enrichment, they can also be valued and consumed for their utilitarian nutritional value [
20]. For instance, fibre enrichment did not have any perceivable effect on the overall acceptability of fermented pork sausages [
23] and noodles [
24]. According to [
20], consumers’ responses may vary between hedonic and utilitarian products; therefore, two utilitarian products (bread and pasta) and one hedonic product (chocolate milk) were selected to study the effect of BSG enrichment.
The motivations driving food choice and tolerance vary from one food product to another. A hedonic scale is a simple method of measuring the overall liking scores, and it is considered the most informative assessment by consumers. However, consumer perception of a product goes beyond overall liking, also including extrinsic elements such as perceived benefits, quality, and wellness of the associated food. Additionally, cognitive–affective factors including perceived emotions, expectations, and health attitudes influence food choice [
25,
26]. Those factors produce a top-down modulation of food perception and attention that can modify consumer behaviour [
27]. These extrinsic elements can be measured using advanced approaches, such as the EsSense Profile and check-all-that-apply (CATA) as conscious methods [
28].
This work aimed to evaluate the use of BSG as fibre enrichment in three different product categories, namely bread, pasta, and chocolate milk, and the impact on consumer motivations and emotions that the fibre enrichment using BSG caused.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Brewers Spent Grains Flour Obtention
BSG (a mixture of Hordeum vulgare and Zea mays) was obtained from the Uruguayan brewing company Fábricas Nacionales de Cerveza S.A. BSG flour was produced by first drying the BSG, the same day it was generated, in a convection oven at 55 °C for 72 h followed by grounding it in a laboratory mill (Retsch ZM 200). The fraction that passed through a 1 mm mesh screen was used for the bread and pasta, while a 0.25 mm mesh screen was used for the chocolate milk. BSG flour was packed in polyethylene bags and kept at room temperature until use. For BSG composition analysis, the fraction that passed through a 1 mm mesh screen was used, except for fibre analysis for which a 0.5 mm mesh was used.
2.2. BSG Composition
Proximate analyses were performed on the BSG flour according to methods proposed by the Association of Official Analytical Collaboration [
29]. Protein content was determined by Kjeldahl method and performed according to method 981.10 of the AOAC International with a conversion factor of 6.25. Fat content was determined by the soxtec method, as described in AOAC 2003.5. Quantification of moisture and ash content was performed under AOAC 925.09 and AOAC 923.02, respectively. Total dietary fibre was measured according to AOAC 985.29. Carbohydrates were calculated by difference (i.e., all other nutrients were summed and subtracted from the total weight of the sample). Sodium was estimated based on the values obtained by [
30].
2.3. Product Formulation
Formulations for fibre-enriched bread, pasta and chocolate milk were developed. The amount of BSG flour used in each product was adjusted to reach a total fibre content of 2.5 g of dietary fibre per serving size, thus allowing the products to bear the “source of fibre” claim according to Uruguayan law [
31]. This resulted in a content of dietary fibre of 2.5%, 5.0%, and 1.25% for pasta, bread and chocolate milk, respectively, which were used as the lower limit for BSG addition in the fibre-enriched products. These products also comply with the Codex Alimentarius [
32] source of fibre claim, in particularly with the condition which calls for a minimum of 10% of the daily reference value per serving. BSG-enriched samples were fibre-enriched bread, fibre-enriched pasta and fibre-enriched chocolate milk, with BSG flour concentrations of 8.3%, 2.8% and 0.35%, respectively. Non-added-BSG formulations were also developed, by replacing the BSG with flour (in the case of bread and pasta) or milk (for the chocolate milk) in the fibre-enriched formulations, and used as control. These are the regular bread, regular pasta and regular chocolate milk. In
Table S1, the nutritional facts of each product are presented.
2.3.1. Bread
Bread was formulated according to [
30], and its formulation is detailed in
Table 1. All ingredients were bought locally. The dough was formed in a KitchenAid professional Bowl-Lift Stand Mixer 5KSM7990X using a spiral dough hook, 6.9 L bowl and a low-speed setting. For the fibre-enriched bread, dry ingredients were first mixed with water for 15 min. Oil and BSG flour (<1 mm) were then added in turns and mixed for 5 min after each addition. The regular bread dough was made likewise, except for the final mixing, which was omitted. Once the doughs were formed, they were left to bulk ferment at 35 °C and 60% relative humidity (RH) for 30 min. Doughs were shaped in 27.5 × 15.0 × 6.5 cm
3 (L × W × H) loaf pans and left to further ferment for 50 min under the same conditions. The proofed breads were baked at 190 °C for 30 min in a convection oven. After baking, they were cooled for 20 min, packed in sealed polyethylene bags, and stored refrigerated until sensory evaluation took place 24 h later.
2.3.2. Pasta
The ingredients for the pasta were: wheat flour, BSG flour (<1 mm), water and eggs. The formulation was adapted from the pasta maker machine recipe book (
Table 2). All ingredients were bought at a local supermarket. Fresh pasta was made with a pasta maker machine (HR2355/08, Philips, Amsterdam, The Netherlands), using the standard program and following its instructions. Spaghetti were cut at a length of approximately 30 cm and left at room temperature until the moment of cooking. The pasta was always consumed the same day that it was made.
2.3.3. Chocolate Milk
The regular chocolate milk was formulated according to a locally commercial chocolate milk, to which BSG flour was then blended in to create the fibre-enriched version. Chocolate milk was made in a mixer, by mixing semi-skimmed milk (1.5% fat content), BSG flour (<250 μm), cocoa powder (12% fat content), granulated sugar, carrageenan type A, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and Givaudan chocolate flavouring for 2 min. Formulations are detailed in
Table 3. All ingredients were bought locally.
2.4. Consumers’ Evaluation Sessions
To study the acceptability of products, one session was held for each product, under blind conditions and on different days. The number of consumers that participated was 110, 119 and 111 in bread, pasta and chocolate milk product sessions, respectively. Participants were randomly recruited on the university campus and public places, being regular consumers of each product between June and September of 2021. The panellists, male and female, ranged between 18 and 70 years old. For the sensory evaluation, the participants were provided with two samples—one of the regular product and one of the fibre-enriched product. These samples were given without any information related to their composition or health effects. Water was provided to consumers as a palate cleanser between samples.
2.4.1. Bread
Breads were prepared the previous day and refrigerated in plastic bags to avoid moisture loss. On the day of evaluation, breads were removed from the refrigerator and left to warm up to room temperature. Half slices of fibre-enriched bread and regular bread (approximately 15 g) were served in biodegradable plastic plates coded with a three-digit number.
2.4.2. Pasta
Fresh pasta was made on the day of evaluation. BSG-added and regular pasta were cooked in abundant salted (1 tbl. spoon) water for 15 min, drained and seasoned with extra virgin olive oil (1 tbl. spoon). Approximately 15 g of cooked spaghetti was served in white polystyrene cups coded with a three-digit number. Samples were maintained warm until evaluation.
2.4.3. Chocolate Milk
Chocolate milk samples were prepared, refrigerated and evaluated in less than 24 h after being produced. Samples were served at 5 °C in plastic cups coded with a three-digit number.
2.5. Sensory Evaluation Questionnaire
Three-digit-coded samples of both products were randomly presented to regular consumers of each product. Participants completed a computer-based questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of two sections. Section one measured consumers’ perception of the product and section two determined the emotions provoked by the product in consumers.
In section one, participants were asked to rate the overall acceptability using a nine-point hedonic scale (1—extremely disliked to 9—extremely liked). Subsequently, consumers completed a CATA product-specific questionnaire to describe the sample. CATA attributes were determined through preliminary brainstorming sessions with consumers who tasted similar products. The attributes were randomly presented to participants to avoid order effects. Finally, purchase intention was measured by a five-point scale from 1—would definitely not buy to 5—would definitely buy, followed by a CATA questionnaire to uncover the reason behind their decision (Table 6).
In section two, the EsSense25 questionnaire was used to collect emotional response data based on the methodology suggested by [
33]. The twenty-five emotions were first translated into Spanish by the authors. As Spanish and Portuguese are closely related due to their Latin roots, Spanish translations were then compared to the Portuguese terms suggested by [
34] and then back-translated to English. Emotions in the EsSense 25 profile are classified into positive, negative and unclassified subgroups according to their nature [
35]. Consumers were presented with a five-point intensity scale (1—Nothing, 2—Slightly, 3—Mildly, 4—Very and 5—Extremely) and asked to select the most accurate intensity for every one of the twenty-five emotions. The emotions were randomly presented to participants to avoid order effects. See
Questionnaire S1 for the full questionnaire design.
2.6. Data Analysis
Acceptability, purchase intention and EsSense 25 results obtained were subjected to paired samples Student’s
t-test analysis with a significance level of 0.05. Raw CATA data were converted into binary data based on frequency of citation (1—cited, 0—non-cited). Nonparametric Cochran’s Q test was then performed on the binary CATA data to detect significant differences (
p < 0.05) among fibre-enriched and regular samples for each attribute. Based on recent research published by [
35], EsSense25 results were subjected to paired samples Student’s
t-test analyses at a significance level of 0.05 to investigate difference in the intensity of emotions between fibre-enriched products and their counterparts. All statistical analysis was performed using XLSTAT software (2019 version, Addinsoft Inc., New York, NY, USA).
4. Conclusions
In this work, the effect of BSG addition to different food product categories was analysed by sensory evaluations of both control and fibre-enriched samples. The amount of BSG flour added to the fibre-enriched products was enough for them to bear the claim Source of fibre according to Codex Alimentarius. The addition of fibre led to some changes in acceptability and buying intention as well as in product perception. Results showed that BSG enrichment had a significant effect on the sensory properties of all three products (p < 0.05), affecting both texture and flavour. Although the fibre-enriched bread and fibre-enriched chocolate milk ranked lower in overall acceptability compared with their counterparts, no significant difference was found between fibre-enriched pasta and regular pasta (p > 0.05).
Interestingly, purchase intention did not differ significantly for either bread or pasta (p > 0.05), yet the reasons for purchasing them differed significantly (p < 0.05). It seems consumers were aware of fibre-enrichment in these two, and were willing to partially compromise on sensory attributes. Fibre-enriched chocolate milk, nonetheless, scored significantly lower in purchase intention than the regular product, probably due to the mouthfeel perception being affected by BSG particles and lack of awareness of it being a functional product.
Overall, the findings demonstrated that the effect of BSG addition is product-specific; while fibre-enriched pasta and fibre-enriched bread were approved by consumers, results for fibre-enriched chocolate milk suggested the opposite. Ambivalence was seen in the emotions generated by the different fibre enriched products, depending on whether the fibre was perceived or not. When consumers perceived the fibre enrichment in the product, they approved consumption, feeling in general more confident.
Finally, it should be noted that this study used convenience sampling of consumers and only three products were investigated. Further research considering the demographic characteristics of the consumers and including other products should be conducted to determine the full effect of fibre enrichment with BSG in consumers’ response. Future research should also focus on the effect of information on the emotions provoked by fibre-enriched products, and their effects on attention, to draw more in-depth conclusions.