Author Contributions
Conceptualization, F.K.S. and M.Y.B.A.; Data curation, A.F.O.; Formal analysis, F.K.S. and A.F.O.; Funding acquisition, F.K.S. and M.Y.B.A.; Investigation, A.F.O.; Methodology, F.K.S. and M.Y.B.A.; Project administration, M.Y.B.A.; Resources, M.Y.B.A.; Software, F.K.S. and M.Y.B.A.; Supervision, F.K.S. and M.Y.B.A.; Validation, A.F.O., F.K.S. and M.Y.B.A.; Visualization, M.Y.B.A.; Writing—original draft, A.F.O.; Writing—review & editing, M.Y.B.A. and F.K.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Figure 1.
T-Map Scale used for RPM. X128 represents a mark (X) placed on the map by an assessor to show the position of product 128 on the T-Map Scale. This means that product 128 is perceived as liked less compared to the reference (R) and quite similar to the reference. Product 827 is perceived as liked more compared to the reference (R) and more different from the reference (R).
Figure 1.
T-Map Scale used for RPM. X128 represents a mark (X) placed on the map by an assessor to show the position of product 128 on the T-Map Scale. This means that product 128 is perceived as liked less compared to the reference (R) and quite similar to the reference. Product 827 is perceived as liked more compared to the reference (R) and more different from the reference (R).
Figure 2.
The different plant-based dairy alternatives: peanut milk, coconut milk, tiger nut milk and melon seed milk.
Figure 2.
The different plant-based dairy alternatives: peanut milk, coconut milk, tiger nut milk and melon seed milk.
Figure 3.
Even ultra-high temperature pasteurized (UHT) full cream milk used as reference sample, R and also as blind control (BC) for RPM test.
Figure 3.
Even ultra-high temperature pasteurized (UHT) full cream milk used as reference sample, R and also as blind control (BC) for RPM test.
Figure 4.
Product Map showing the area of innovation between the difference and liking axes. Legend: H—37.5% melon seed milk, 25% coconut milk, 37.5% peanut milk; A—25% melon seed milk, 50% coconut milk, 25% tiger nuts milk; P—50% coconut milk, 25% tiger nuts milk, 25% peanut milk; N—25% melon seed milk, 50% coconut milk, 25% peanut milk; R—37.5% melon seed milk, 25% coconut milk, 37.5% tiger nuts milk; E—25% coconut milk, 37.5% tiger nuts milk, 37.5% peanut milk; V*—Commercial plant-based dairy alternative and BC*— Even ultra-high temperature pasteurized (UHT) full cream milk; *—Commercial products.
Figure 4.
Product Map showing the area of innovation between the difference and liking axes. Legend: H—37.5% melon seed milk, 25% coconut milk, 37.5% peanut milk; A—25% melon seed milk, 50% coconut milk, 25% tiger nuts milk; P—50% coconut milk, 25% tiger nuts milk, 25% peanut milk; N—25% melon seed milk, 50% coconut milk, 25% peanut milk; R—37.5% melon seed milk, 25% coconut milk, 37.5% tiger nuts milk; E—25% coconut milk, 37.5% tiger nuts milk, 37.5% peanut milk; V*—Commercial plant-based dairy alternative and BC*— Even ultra-high temperature pasteurized (UHT) full cream milk; *—Commercial products.
Figure 5.
Mean difference from reference scores. Error bars are standard errors of the mean. Letters represent Fishers Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) Post hoc analysis of the means. Samples with no letters in common are statistically different at the 95% confidence level. Legend: H—37.5% melon seed milk, 25% coconut milk, 37.5% peanut milk; A—25% melon seed milk, 50% coconut milk, 25% tiger nuts milk; P—50% coconut milk, 25% tiger nuts milk, 25% peanut milk; N—25% melon seed milk, 50% coconut milk, 25% peanut milk; R—37.5% melon seed milk, 25% coconut milk, 37.5% tiger nuts milk; E—25% coconut milk, 37.5% tiger nuts milk, 37.5% peanut milk; V*—Commercial plant-based dairy alternative and BC*— Even ultra-high temperature pasteurized (UHT) full cream milk; *—Commercial products.
Figure 5.
Mean difference from reference scores. Error bars are standard errors of the mean. Letters represent Fishers Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) Post hoc analysis of the means. Samples with no letters in common are statistically different at the 95% confidence level. Legend: H—37.5% melon seed milk, 25% coconut milk, 37.5% peanut milk; A—25% melon seed milk, 50% coconut milk, 25% tiger nuts milk; P—50% coconut milk, 25% tiger nuts milk, 25% peanut milk; N—25% melon seed milk, 50% coconut milk, 25% peanut milk; R—37.5% melon seed milk, 25% coconut milk, 37.5% tiger nuts milk; E—25% coconut milk, 37.5% tiger nuts milk, 37.5% peanut milk; V*—Commercial plant-based dairy alternative and BC*— Even ultra-high temperature pasteurized (UHT) full cream milk; *—Commercial products.
Figure 6.
Mean liking compared to the reference. Error bars are standard errors of the mean. Letters represent Fishers Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) Post hoc analysis of the means. Samples with no letters in common are statistically different at the 95% confidence level. Legend: H—37.5% melon seed milk, 25% coconut milk, 37.5% peanut milk; A—25% melon seed milk, 50% coconut milk, 25% tiger nuts milk; P—50% coconut milk, 25% tiger nuts milk, 25% peanut milk; N—25% melon seed milk, 50% coconut milk, 25% peanut milk; R—37.5% melon seed milk, 25% coconut milk, 37.5% tiger nuts milk; E—25% coconut milk, 37.5% tiger nuts milk, 37.5% peanut milk; V*—Commercial plant-based dairy alternative and BC*— Even ultra-high temperature pasteurized (UHT) full cream milk; *—Commercial products.
Figure 6.
Mean liking compared to the reference. Error bars are standard errors of the mean. Letters represent Fishers Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) Post hoc analysis of the means. Samples with no letters in common are statistically different at the 95% confidence level. Legend: H—37.5% melon seed milk, 25% coconut milk, 37.5% peanut milk; A—25% melon seed milk, 50% coconut milk, 25% tiger nuts milk; P—50% coconut milk, 25% tiger nuts milk, 25% peanut milk; N—25% melon seed milk, 50% coconut milk, 25% peanut milk; R—37.5% melon seed milk, 25% coconut milk, 37.5% tiger nuts milk; E—25% coconut milk, 37.5% tiger nuts milk, 37.5% peanut milk; V*—Commercial plant-based dairy alternative and BC*— Even ultra-high temperature pasteurized (UHT) full cream milk; *—Commercial products.
Figure 7.
Cox response trace plot to show effect of ingredient on overall liking scores.
Figure 7.
Cox response trace plot to show effect of ingredient on overall liking scores.
Figure 8.
Cox response trace plot to show effect of ingredient on appearance liking scores.
Figure 8.
Cox response trace plot to show effect of ingredient on appearance liking scores.
Figure 9.
Cox response trace plot to show effect of ingredient on flavour liking scores.
Figure 9.
Cox response trace plot to show effect of ingredient on flavour liking scores.
Figure 10.
Cox response trace plot to show effect of ingredient on mouthfeel liking scores.
Figure 10.
Cox response trace plot to show effect of ingredient on mouthfeel liking scores.
Figure 11.
Cox response trace plot to show effect of ingredient on consistency liking scores.
Figure 11.
Cox response trace plot to show effect of ingredient on consistency liking scores.
Figure 12.
Cox response trace plot to show effect of ingredient on aftertaste liking scores.
Figure 12.
Cox response trace plot to show effect of ingredient on aftertaste liking scores.
Table 1.
Lower and upper limits of the four component raw materials.
Table 1.
Lower and upper limits of the four component raw materials.
Component | Lower Limit (%) | Upper Limit (%) |
---|
Coconut | 25 | 100 |
Peanut | 0 | 100 |
Tiger nut | 0 | 100 |
Melon Seeds | 0 | 100 |
Table 2.
Design matrix for a four-component mixture design for the plant-based dairy alternatives.
Table 2.
Design matrix for a four-component mixture design for the plant-based dairy alternatives.
Run Order | Prototype | X1 (%) | X2 (%) | X3 (%) | X4 (%) | Total (%) |
---|
1 | A | 50.000 | 0.000 | 25.000 | 25.000 | 100 |
2 | B | 34.375 | 9.375 | 46.875 | 9.375 | 100 |
3 | C | 71.875 | 9.375 | 9.375 | 9.375 | 100 |
4 | D | 34.375 | 9.375 | 9.375 | 46.875 | 100 |
5 | E | 25.000 | 37.500 | 37.500 | 0.000 | 100 |
6 | F | 25.000 | 0.000 | 75.000 | 0.000 | 100 |
7 | G | 25.000 | 75.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 100 |
8 | H | 25.000 | 37.500 | 0.000 | 37.500 | 100 |
9 | I | 62.500 | 0.000 | 37.500 | 0.000 | 100 |
10 | J | 25.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 75.000 | 100 |
11 | K | 34.375 | 46.875 | 9.375 | 9.375 | 100 |
12 | L | 100.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 100 |
13 | M | 62.500 | 37.500 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 100 |
14 | N | 50.000 | 25.000 | 0.000 | 25.000 | 100 |
15 | O | 62.500 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 37.500 | 100 |
16 | P | 50.000 | 25.000 | 25.000 | 0.000 | 100 |
17 | Q | 43.750 | 18.750 | 18.750 | 18.750 | 100 |
18 | R | 25.000 | 0.000 | 37.500 | 37.500 | 100 |
19 | S | 25.000 | 25.000 | 25.000 | 25.000 | 100 |
Table 3.
Products used for Relative Preference Mapping.
Table 3.
Products used for Relative Preference Mapping.
Product Number | Product Code | Product Details | Other Details |
---|
1 | A | C (50%) T (25%) M (25%) | Prototype |
2 | E | C (25%) P (37.5%) T (37.5%) | Prototype |
3 | H | C (25%) P (37.5%) M (37.5%) | Prototype |
4 | N | C (50%) P (25%) M (25%) | Prototype |
5 | P | C (50%) P(25%) T(25%) | Prototype |
6 | R | C (25%) T (37.5%) M (37.5%) | Prototype |
7 | V | Vitamilk | Commercial product |
8 | BC | Even ultra-high temperature pasteurized (UHT) full cream milk | Commercial product sweetened to the same concentration as the prototypes |
Table 4.
Proximate Composition of the products arranged in order of decreasing protein content.
Table 4.
Proximate Composition of the products arranged in order of decreasing protein content.
Product | Composition (%) |
---|
Protein | Fat | Ash | Carbohydrates | Moisture | Total Solids |
---|
* BC | 3.76 ± 0.00 a | 2.49 ± 0.22 f | 0.71 ± 0.02 a | 5.23 ± 0.06 e | 87.84 ± 0.01 b | 12.17 ± 0.02 e |
H | 3.51 ± 0.02 ab | 6.30 ± 0.42 a | 0.25 ± 0.01 f | 4.68 ± 0.01 g | 85.26 ± 0.01 f | 14.74 ± 0.01 a |
* V | 3.30 ± 0.04 b | 3.36 ± 0.00 e | 0.41 ± 0.01 cd | 6.04 ± 0.01 b | 86.89 ± 0.11 d | 13.18 ± 0.11 c |
R | 2.31 ± 0.21 c | 4.09 ± 0.05 d | 0.51 ± 0.07 b | 5.90 ± 0.03 c | 87.19 ± 0.02 c | 12.81 ± 0.02 d |
N | 2.16 ± 0.39 cd | 6.54 ± 0.04 a | 0.31 ± 0.02 ef | 5.09 ± 0.01 f | 85.89 ± 0.22 e | 14.23 ± 0.22 b |
A | 1.89 ± 0.24 de | 5.11 ± 0.20 b | 0.49 ± 0.01 bc | 4.28 ± 0.01 h | 88.22 ± 0.13 a | 11.78 ± 0.13 f |
E | 1.90 ± 0.09 de | 4.71 ± 0.08 c | 0.36 ± 0.02 de | 7.26 ± 0.01 a | 85.77 ± 0.01 e | 14.24 ± 0.01 b |
P | 1.65 ± 0.06 e | 5.00 ± 0.35 bc | 0.34 ± 0.00 de | 5.65 ± 0.01 d | 87.36 ± 0.23 c | 12.64 ± 0.23 d |
Table 5.
Color indices of samples used in the RPM arranged in order of decreasing L * values.
Table 5.
Color indices of samples used in the RPM arranged in order of decreasing L * values.
Product | L * | A * | B * | ΔE |
---|
* BC | 95.23 ± 0.10 a | −0.93 ± 0.01 h | 13.66 ± 0.05 e | 12.01 ± 0.01 h |
N | 85.54 ± 0.50 b | 0.52 ± 0.04 g | 12.74 ± 0.05 g | 16.64 ± 0.01 g |
* V | 85.31 ± 0.02 b | 1.41 ± 0.01 b | 16.25 ± 0.04 a | 19.36 ± 0.01 e |
H | 83.13 ± 0.32 c | 0.86 ± 0.02 e | 13.74 ± 0.06 d | 19.07 ± 0.06 f |
A | 80.06 ± 0.77 d | 0.58 ± 0.02 f | 13.21 ± 0.05 f | 21.32 ± 0.01 d |
P | 79.32 ± 0.05 e | 0.98 ± 0.05 c | 13.62 ± 002 e | 22.17 ± 0.01 c |
E | 78.22 ± 0.13 f | 1.87 ± 0.03 a | 14.61 ± 0.01 c | 23.69 ± 0.01 b |
R | 75.91 ± 0.13 g | 0.91 ± 0.01 d | 15.36 ± 0.04 b | 25.93. ± 0.01 a |
Table 6.
Regression coefficients for sensory scores.
Table 6.
Regression coefficients for sensory scores.
Predictor Variable | Coefficients |
---|
Overall Liking | Appearance | Flavour | Mouthfeel | Consistency | Aftertaste |
---|
X1 | 7.874 | 7.332 | 7.824 | 7.967 | 7.382 | 7.713 |
X2 | 8.396 | 6.751 | 8.794 | 9.16 | 8.813 | 8.751 |
X3 | 2.354 | 1.137 | 3.1 | 2.98 | 3.353 | 2.865 |
X4 | 2.769 | 5.151 | 4.815 | 5.083 | 6.816 | 3.215 |
X1X2 | −5.01 | 3.002 | −6.302 | −7.756 | −4.589 | −7.483 |
X1X3 | 4.669 | 6.251 | 0.754 | 2.135 | 3.131 | 3.241 |
X1X4 | −8.923 | 4.815 | −8.635 | −8.272 | −6.567 * | −7.945 * |
X2X3 | 3.94 | 6.069 | 2.092 | 5.496 | −0.187 | 6.739 |
X2X4 | −1.749 | −4.847 | −4.927 | −6.491 | −6.724* | −6.028 |
X3X4 | 8.719 | −5.55 | 1.339 | 2.61 | −2.164 | 5.487 |
R2 (%) | 79.91 | 89.33 | 82.81 | 88.44 | 90.55 | 93.88 |
R2 Adjusted (%) | 59.82 | 78.67 | 65.63 | 76.88 | 81.11 | 87.76 |
Table 7.
Mean liking scores for the 19 formulations arranged in order of decreasing overall liking scores.
Table 7.
Mean liking scores for the 19 formulations arranged in order of decreasing overall liking scores.
Product Code | Sensory Scores |
---|
Overall Liking | Appearance | Flavour | Mouthfeel | Consistency | Aftertaste |
---|
L (C100%) | 7.89 ± 0.78 a | 7.11 ± 1.62 abcd | 7.78 ± 0.83 a | 7.78 ± 0.83 a | 7.33 ± 1.23 ab | 7.78 ± 0.97 a |
E (C25%, P37.5%, T37.5%) | 7.44 ± 1.74 ab | 7.11 ± 1.45 abcd | 7.00 ± 1.80 ab | 7.44 ± 1.24 ab | 6.56 ± 2.46 abc | 7.00 ± 2.45 ab |
G (C25%, P75%) | 7.44 ± 1.13 ab | 7.44 ± 1.33 abc | 7.22 ± 1.20 ab | 7.44 ± 1.88 ab | 7.44 ± 1.51 a | 7.11 ± 2.01 ab |
I (C62.5%, T37.5%) | 7.22 ± 1.30 abc | 7.00 ± 1.23 abcd | 6.56 ± 1.81 abc | 6.89 ± 1.76 abc | 6.67 ± 1.66 abc | 6.67 ± 2.24 abc |
M (C62.5%, P37.5%) | 7.00 ± 1.00 abcd | 8.11 ± 0.93 a | 7.00 ± 1.32 ab | 6.78 ± 1.79 abcd | 7.00 ± 2.00 abc | 6.44 ± 1.33 abc |
N (C50%, P25%, M25%) | 6.55 ± 1.88 abcd | 7.56 ± 1.13 abc | 6.00 ± 2.00 abcde | 5.78 ± 2.91 abcde | 5.78 ± 2.77 abc | 5.11 ± 3.22 bcdef |
C (C71.9%, P9.4%, T9.4%, M9.4%) | 6.55 ± 2.40 abcd | 7.78 ± 0.97 ab | 6.11 ± 2.42 abcd | 6.78 ± 2.49 abcd | 6.67 ± 2.65 abc | 6.11 ± 2.57 bcd |
A (C50%, T25%, M25%) | 6.00 ± 0.50 bcde | 5.77 ± 1.30 def | 5.89 ± 0.83 abcde | 5.44 ± 2.13 bcde | 6.00 ± 2.35 abc | 5.78 ± 0.97 abcde |
B (C34.4%, P9.4%, T46.9.%, M9.4%) | 5.78 ± 2.49 bcdef | 5.44 ± 1.24 ef | 4.78 ± 2.28 cdef | 5.56 ± 2.07 bcde | 5.67 ± 2.12 abc | 5.78 ± 2.86 abcde |
K (C34.4%, P46.9%, T9.4%, M9.4%) | 5.68 ± 2.29 bcdef | 6.77 ± 1.72 abcde | 6.00 ± 2.55 abcde | 5.67 ± 2.40 bcde | 6.78 ± 1.79 abc | 6.00 ± 1.87 abcd |
Q (C43.8%, P18.8%, T18.8%, M18.8%) | 5.44 ± 2.60 cdef | 6.22 ± 1.56 cde | 5.00 ± 2.74 cdef | 5.44 ± 2.88 bcde | 5.67 ± 2.65 abc | 5.22 ± 2.44 bcdef |
P (C50%, P25%, T25%) | 5.33 ± 2.29 def | 6.44 ± 1.33 bcde | 5.33 ± 2.29 bcdef | 6.00 ± 1.73 abcde | 5.89 ± 1.76 abc | 6.00 ± 2.35 abcd |
S (C25%, P25%, T25%, M25%) | 5.33 ± 2.12 def | 5.44 ± 2.00 ef | 5.00 ± 2.06 cdef | 5.33 ± 2.35 cde | 5.22 ± 2.05 bc | 5.56 ± 2.56 bcdef |
R (C25%, T37.5%, M37.5%) | 4.44 ± 1.67 efg | 4.78 ± 1.64 fg | 4.44 ± 2.30 def | 5.11 ± 1.97 cde | 5.00 ± 2.60 c | 4.11 ± 1.69 defg |
F(C25%, T75%) | 4.44 ± 2.83 efg | 3.67 ± 2.40 g | 4.33 ± 2.83 def | 4.44 ± 2.45 e | 4.88 ± 2.62 c | 4.67 ± 2.74 cdefg |
H (C25%, P37.5%, M37.5%) | 4.11 ± 1.83 fgh | 6.44 ± 1.24 bcde | 5.00 ± 1.73 cdef | 5.11 ± 2.67 cde | 5.78 ± 2.82 abc | 3.78 ± 2.49 efg |
D (C34.4%, P9.4%, T9.4%, M46.9%) | 4.00 ± 1.94 fgh | 6.67 ± 1.33 bcde | 3.78 ± 2.17 f | 4.11 ± 2.03 e | 5.33 ± 2.50 abc | 3.89 ± 1.83 efg |
O (C62.5%, M37.5%) | 2.78 ± 2.10 gh | 7.67 ± 1.50 ab | 4.22 ± 2.49 def | 4.78 ± 3.03 de | 5.44 ± 2.46 abc | 3.67 ± 2.69 fg |
J (C43.8%, P46.9%, T9.4%, M9.4%) | 2.56 ± 1.94 h | 6.44 ± 1.81 bcde | 4.11 ± 2.52 ef | 4.33 ± 2.64 e | 5.78 ± 2.77 abc | 3.00 ± 2.06 g |