Nationwide Surveillance and Cumulative Risk Assessment of Pesticide Residues in Egyptian Vegetables: Results from 2018 to 2021

Abstract

Pesticide residues in food are a global concern due to their potential impacts on human health and the environment. This study investigates pesticide residues in vegetables commonly consumed in Egypt, utilizing advanced analytical techniques such as Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and Gas Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). A total of 4200 vegetable samples, including cucumber, squash, eggplant, okra, peas, onion, green onion, parsley, lettuce, and cantaloupe, were collected from 20 markets across different Egyptian governorates between 2018 and 2021. The analysis revealed that 42% of the samples contained pesticide residues, with only 13% of the analyzed samples exceeding the maximum residue limits (MRLs) established by Codex/EU-MRL standards. Despite this, the estimated daily intake (EDI) of the detected pesticides did not surpass acceptable daily intake (ADI) limits, suggesting no immediate chronic health risks to consumers. These findings highlight Egypt’s ongoing commitment to food safety, while also underscoring the importance of continuous monitoring and the promotion of sustainable agricultural practices to ensure the long-term safety and quality of the food supply.

1. Introduction

Agricultural practices have long been the backbone of global food security, crucial in sustaining the growing human population. In the quest to meet the ever-increasing demand for food, the use of pesticides has become a common practice worldwide [1]. Pesticides, which include insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and other agrochemicals, are widely used to control pests, weeds, and diseases that threaten crop yields [2]. Reports indicate that the abrupt global cessation of pesticide use would immediately lead to a 54% decline in vegetable yield, caused by pests [3]. However, the extensive and often indiscriminate use of these chemicals has raised significant concerns regarding their residual presence in food products, particularly in fresh produce, and the associated risks to human health. An estimated 2.4 million tons of pesticide-active compounds are discharged into the environment annually [4]. Pesticides’ widespread usage and potential health risks to people and non-target creatures have raised worldwide concerns [5].

Vegetables, which are vital components of a healthy diet due to their rich content of vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber, are among the most frequently consumed food items. They are also highly susceptible to contamination by pesticide residues. Moreover, vegetables typically require a higher level of pesticide use due to their susceptibility to pest infestation compared to other crops. Vegetables are cultivated throughout the year, and in certain extreme cases, pesticides may be applied up to once a week to enhance the yield [2,6]. This is particularly concerning given the direct consumption of these products by consumers, often with minimal processing that could otherwise remove or degrade pesticide residues. The ingestion of pesticide-contaminated vegetables poses a potential risk to public health, especially when these residues exceed the MRLs established by regulatory bodies [7,8,9].

In Egypt, vegetables form a significant part of the daily diet, with a wide variety of leafy greens, root vegetables, and other types being consumed regularly. The country’s agricultural sector is a critical component of its economy, with a substantial portion of its produce intended for both domestic consumption and for export. Moreover, as in many other developing countries, Egypt extensively uses pesticides to enhance crop yields to accommodate population expansion. Based on data from the Agricultural Pesticides Committee [10], Egypt utilized almost 10,000 tons of pesticide-active components in 2018. Egyptian farmers use pesticides in larger amounts, at increased rates, and at less frequent intervals [11]. However, the monitoring of pesticide residues in Egyptian vegetables has not always kept pace with the increased use of pesticides, leading to potential gaps in food safety and public health protection [12].

The issue of pesticide residues is not just a national concern; it is a global challenge. Internationally, there is growing recognition of the need for robust monitoring systems to ensure that food products, including vegetables, meet safety standards. These standards are often based on risk assessments that consider both the levels of pesticide residues present in food and the potential health risks associated with long-term exposure. Therefore, regular and comprehensive monitoring of pesticide residues is essential to protecting consumers and maintaining public confidence in the safety of the food supply [6,12,13,14].

This study focuses on the monitoring of pesticide residues in certain vegetables commonly consumed in Egypt using state-of-the-art analytical techniques. Specifically, LC-MS/MS and GC-MS/MS were used to detect and quantify pesticide residues. These techniques are among the most advanced in the field of analytical chemistry, offering unparalleled sensitivity and specificity, quantifying multiple residues simultaneously even at very low concentrations, and allowing for accuracy in identifying and quantifying trace levels of pesticides in complex matrices such as vegetables [15,16,17,18].

The selection of vegetables for this study was based on their high consumption rates in Egypt and their potential for exposure to pesticides during cultivation. These vegetables are integral to the Egyptian diet and are often consumed raw or with minimal cooking, which further underscores the importance of ensuring their safety. The findings of this study will contribute valuable data to the existing body of knowledge on pesticide residues in vegetables. These data are critical for several reasons. Firstly, they provide a snapshot of the current levels of pesticide contamination in the Egyptian vegetable supply, which can be used to assess compliance with national and international safety standards. Secondly, the data will help identify specific pesticides that are commonly used in excess or that persist in the environment, informing future regulatory actions and agricultural practices. Moreover, this study serves as a prelude to a more comprehensive health risk assessment, which is necessary to understand the potential long-term effects of pesticide exposure on public health. Health risk assessments typically involve evaluating the likelihood of adverse health effects in humans due to exposure to chemical substances, in this case, pesticide residues [12,19]. This study’s findings can inform the development of more stringent regulations and guidelines regarding pesticide use and residue monitoring. They can also support Egypt’s compliance with international food safety standards, which is particularly important for maintaining access to export markets. As the global trade of agricultural products continues to expand, ensuring that Egyptian vegetables meet the safety standards of importing countries is critical for the country’s economic growth and food security.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Chemicals and Reagents

A total of 430 certified reference standards of pesticides (purity > 99%) were acquired from Dr Ehrenstorfer (Augsburg, Germany). LC-MS grade methanol, acetonitrile, and formic acid (99% Purity) were supplied by Supelco. A ProElut QuEChERS sample extraction kit (1 g NaCl, 4 g MgSO₄, 0.5 g disodium hydrogen citrate, and 1 g trisodium citrate dihydrate) and a clean-up kit (25 mg primary and secondary amine (PSA) and 150 mg MgSO₄) were provided by Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA. The purification system Milli-Q IQ 7015 (MilliporeSigma, Burlington, MA, USA) produces ultra-pure-grade water.

2.2. Commodity Sampling Program

From 2018 to 2021, the nationwide surveillance program for pesticide residues focused on analyzing a wide range of vegetable crops, including cucumber, squash, eggplant, okra, peas, onion, green onion, parsley, lettuce, and cantaloupe. These samples were collected from 20 different markets across 17 Egyptian governorates, including Cairo, Giza, El-Beheira, Alexandria, Qalyubia, Dakahlia, Damietta, Menoufia, Gharbia, Kafr El-Sheikh, Sharkia, Ismailia, Beni Suef, Minya, Fayoum, Asyut, and Sohag. The sampling followed official guidelines set forth by the Central Agricultural Pesticide Laboratory, in line with CODEX recommendations [20], ensuring the control of pesticide residues in plant-origin products.

The samples were collected from local markets and distributors, independent of their origin, to ensure objectivity in the surveillance process. Authorized personnel conducted the sampling and ensured that each sample was properly labeled, sealed, and transported to the laboratory under controlled conditions. Upon arrival, the samples were processed promptly, having arrived at the laboratory within 24 h of collection. The vegetables were homogenized and divided into two portions: one part was analyzed for pesticide residues, while the other was stored at −20 °C for future testing if needed. This comprehensive sampling strategy ensured that the program covered a wide geographic area and a broad range of vegetable products available in the Egyptian market, providing a robust dataset for the assessment of pesticide residues in food.

The vegetable samples were analyzed at the Central Agricultural Pesticide Laboratory (CAPL) using a multi-residue method, which involved GC-MS/MS and LC-MS/MS techniques combined with a QuEChERS extraction method (Figures S1 and S2). The CAPL is accredited by the Egyptian Accreditation Council (EGAC) and complies with ISO/IEC 17025:2017 [21] standards, ensuring the reliability and accuracy of the analytical results.

2.3. Health Risk Assessment

The assessment of consumer health risks resulting from the consumption of pesticide-contaminated vegetables was conducted using data from EFSA (2019) [22] and WHO (2021) [23], and evaluated using the Hazard Index (HI). The calculation was performed by dividing the EDI (estimated daily intake) by the equivalent values of recommended daily intake (ADI) in mg/kg of body weight. Based on the EU Pesticides Database, the HI quantities for identified pesticides were calculated using the equation HI = EDI/ADI × 100. The following equation was used to compute the EDI of different pesticides in each vegetable species: the equation EDI = (A × B)/C represents the relationship between the concentration of pesticide residues in vegetables (mg·kg⁻¹), the anticipated average daily vegetable consumption for adults (0.345 kg person⁻¹ day⁻¹) as reported in previous studies [12,24,25], and (C) the average body mass in kg (assumed to be 60 kg). When the HI is below 100%, the food is deemed safe for consumption. When the percentage exceeds 100%, the food is deemed to pose a health risk to the consumer [26].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Pesticide Residue Detection

Between 2018 and 2021, a total of 4200 vegetable samples were collected and analyzed from twenty different markets across Egyptian governorates, including Cairo, Giza, El-Beheira, Alexandria, Qalyubia, Dakahlia, Damietta, Menoufia, Gharbia, Kafr El-Sheikh, Sharkia, Ismailia, Beni Suef, Minya, Fayoum, Asyut, and Sohag. The vegetable types tested included cucumber, squash, eggplant, okra, peas, onion, green onion, parsley, lettuce, and cantaloupe. This comprehensive dataset allowed for an extensive evaluation of pesticide residues in widely consumed vegetables, providing crucial insights into both food safety and environmental contamination. Out of the 4200 samples analyzed, 42% tested positive for pesticide residues. One hundred and ten chemicals were identified in contaminated samples from several pesticide chemical groups (neonicotinoids, carbamates, organophosphates, pyrethroids, avermectins, etc.) (Table S1). The most frequently detected pesticides included chlorpyrifos, metalaxyl, acetamiprid, cypermethrin, and azoxystrobin (Figure 1), which were found in 24.2%, 16.8%, 16.6%, 15.1%, and 14.8% of the 1751 contaminated samples, respectively. Chlorpyrifos, a broad-spectrum organophosphate insecticide, is known for its environmental persistence and potential health risks, including neurotoxicity. It was one of the most frequently detected pesticides in this study, with residues found in 424 different vegetable samples. Chlorpyrifos is often applied as an alternative to more toxic pesticides such as methamidophos and isocarbophos [27]. Its tendency to persist and accumulate in soil can result in the presence of residues within plants. In the European Union and in various other parts of the world, chlorpyrifos stands out as the most extensively used pesticide in plant production [28]. This observation is consistent with the findings of Islam et al. [29] and Ibrahim & Shalaby [12]. Additionally, Habib et al. (2021) [30] found that chlorpyrifos was the most frequently detected pesticide in eggplant and cauliflower samples from Dhaka, Bangladesh. Similarly, Shalaby et al. (2021) [31] reported that chlorpyrifos was the most commonly found pesticide in vegetable samples collected from the Dakahlia governorate in Egypt between January and April 2018.

Metalaxyl was detected in 295 samples and was particularly prevalent in leafy vegetables such as parsley, lettuce, and cucumbers. This systemic fungicide is commonly used to control downy mildew and other fungal diseases in crops prone to high moisture retention, which may explain its widespread presence in these vegetables. Acetamiprid, an insecticide from the neonicotinoid class, was found in 291 of the samples. It was detected in various vegetables, particularly in okra, green onion, and peas. Its ability to control sucking insects, such as aphids, has made it a popular choice for farmers aiming to protect vegetables from insect infestations. Cypermethrin, a synthetic pyrethroid, was identified in 265 samples and was most commonly found in cucumber, onion, parsley, and eggplant. The high detection rates of azoxystrobin further reflect the heavy reliance on fungicides and insecticides in agricultural practices within the surveyed areas. This insecticide is frequently used to manage insect pests such as aphids and thrips, particularly in fruiting and leafy vegetables, where pest pressure is typically high.

Among the vegetables analyzed, parsley and cucumber demonstrated the highest levels of pesticide contamination, with 59% and 50% of samples testing positive for pesticide residues, respectively (

Table 1. Frequency of vegetable samples with pesticide residues from across 17 Egyptian governorates.

Commodity	Number of Samples	No. Free Sample	Pesticide-Contaminated Sample		No. Sample > MRL	Sample% Have Residues > MRL
			No.	%
Cumber	420	211	209	50%	56	13.3%
Okra	420	244	176	42%	37	8.8%
Eggplant	420	289	131	31%	39	9.3%
Squash	420	260	160	38%	25	6.0%
Peas	420	246	174	41%	65	15.5%
Onion	420	244	176	42%	49	11.7%
Green onion	420	259	161	38%	75	17.9%
Lettuce	420	294	126	30%	38	9.0%
Cantaloupe	420	231	189	45%	39	9.3%
Parsley	420	171	249	59%	141	33.6%
Total No.	4200	2449	1751	-	564	-
Total %	-	-	-	42%		13%

). Parsley, in particular, showed an alarming rate of contamination, which can be attributed to its high surface area and the delicate nature of its leaves, making it more susceptible to pest infestations. This often leads to more frequent pesticide applications to protect the crop from damage. Similarly, cucumbers, which are prone to various pests and fungal diseases, also displayed significant contamination levels. Cucumber is known to be susceptible to fungal diseases such as downy mildew, and the frequent use of fungicides and insecticides in its production may explain its high contamination rate [32]. These findings raise concerns about the potential health risks associated with consuming these widely consumed vegetables and highlight the need for stricter monitoring of pesticide use, particularly for crops like parsley and cucumber.

In contrast, eggplant and lettuce had the lowest levels of detectable pesticide residues, with only 31% and 30% of their samples showing contamination (Table 1). The lower contamination levels in eggplant might be due to its thicker skin, which can reduce the absorption of pesticide residues [33]. Lettuce’s fast growth cycle may allow for reduced pesticide persistence, as pesticides tend to dissipate quickly before harvest. However, despite their relatively lower contamination rates, these crops still represent a substantial portion of the total of all crops exposed to pesticides, indicating that residues remain pervasive even in crops that are generally considered to require fewer pesticide applications.

Across the entire study, 13% of the analyzed samples contained pesticide residues exceeding the MRL established by Codex/EU-MRL standards (Table 1). Exceeding these limits poses significant health risks, as prolonged consumption of such produce can lead to the accumulation of harmful chemicals in the body, potentially causing chronic health issues, including endocrine disruption, neurological disorders, or even cancer [34]. The results are particularly concerning for crops like parsley and green onions, for which 33.6% and 17.9% of samples, respectively, exceeded the MRL. This high exceedance rate suggests that these crops may either be subjected to excessive pesticide application or that there is poor adherence to pre-harvest intervals (PHIs), which dictate the time required for pesticides to break down to safe levels before harvest [35]. Such practices undermine food safety and expose consumers to unnecessary health risks.

Conversely, residue levels detected in squash and lettuce samples were generally within acceptable limits, with only 6% of squash samples and 9% of lettuce samples exceeding the MRLs (Table 1). These lower exceedance rates may suggest better regulatory compliance or more effective residue dissipation in these crops. Squash, for instance, has relatively tough outer skin that may act as a barrier, reducing pesticide residue levels in the edible portion [36]. However, the presence of any residues above regulatory limits still underscores the need for continuous monitoring and enforcement of pesticide regulations to safeguard consumer health. Even though the exceedance percentages are lower for these crops, repeated consumption of produce with residues near or above the MRLs can contribute to cumulative exposure over time, which may have long-term health implications [37].

The findings from this study highlight the importance of targeted regulatory actions, particularly for high-risk vegetables like parsley and green onions, where excessive pesticide use appears to be more prevalent. These crops should be prioritized for stricter monitoring and enforcement of pesticide safety standards. Additionally, this study emphasizes the need for education and training for farmers on the proper use of pesticides, particularly in terms of dosage and adherence to PHIs, to ensure that pesticide residues remain within safe levels by the time the crops reach consumers [23]. By improving compliance and adopting integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, the agricultural sector can reduce its reliance on chemical pesticides, thereby promoting safer food production practices [38].

Based on their usage (Figure 2), approximately 47% of the detected compounds were identified as insecticides, with a total detection frequency of 1946 across the analyzed samples. Insecticides, such as chlorpyrifos, acetamiprid, and cypermethrin, represent the largest group of pesticides used in agriculture, reflecting their importance in protecting crops from a wide range of insect pests. These compounds are crucial in maintaining crop health, especially in regions where pest pressure is high, as they effectively control harmful insects that can devastate yields. However, the widespread use of insecticides raises concerns about environmental persistence, non-target effects, and the development of pest resistance, which all underscore the need for careful management and integrated pest control strategies.

Fungicides made up about 45% of the detected compounds, with a total detection frequency of 1889. This high percentage highlights the importance of fungal disease control in crop protection. Fungicides like azoxystrobin, carbendazim, and difenoconazole are frequently applied to manage fungal pathogens that can significantly reduce crop productivity and quality. The high detection rates of fungicides indicate that farmers are heavily reliant on these compounds to protect crops, particularly in regions with favorable conditions for fungal growth, such as humid climates. However, repeated use of fungicides may lead to the development of resistant fungal strains, posing long-term challenges to sustainable disease management.

Herbicides, detected in 192 samples, accounted for 4.56% of the detected compounds. Herbicides such as atrazine and pendimethalin are vital in controlling weeds that compete with crops for nutrients, water, and light. While herbicides are less frequently detected than insecticides and fungicides, their role in maintaining field productivity is critical. Over-reliance on certain herbicides, however, can lead to herbicide-resistant weed populations, which can complicate weed management strategies and increase costs for farmers. The relatively lower detection rate of herbicides could be attributed to their more targeted application or to seasonal variations in their use, but it also suggests the importance of monitoring herbicide residues to prevent environmental contamination.

Miticides (acaricides), including propargite and spirodiclofen, appeared in 157 samples, making up 3.73% of the detected compounds. These are essential for controlling mite infestations, which can cause significant damage to crops, especially in warm climates where mites thrive. Although miticides are used less frequently than insecticides and fungicides, their application is critical for managing pests that can quickly become problematic if left unchecked. The relatively higher detection of miticides in some crops may reflect increased mite pressures in certain regions, as well as the growing reliance on specific acaricides for effective control.

Additionally, nematicides, although detected at a lower frequency (0.1%), play an important role in managing nematode infestations, which can severely impact root crops and overall plant health. While their use is more specialized, the presence of nematicides in the dataset highlights the diverse strategies employed in pest control across various agricultural systems.

The data reveal a significant reliance on insecticides and fungicides, which together make up more than 90% of the detected compounds. This heavy reliance points to the importance of these chemical tools in modern agriculture. However, the potential risks associated with pesticide overuse, such as resistance development, environmental contamination, and impacts on non-target species, call for a more integrated approach to pest and disease management. The moderate detection of herbicides and miticides also reflects their targeted application in specific crops, while nematicides, though used less frequently, are crucial in certain contexts. This comprehensive view of pesticide usage underscores the need for ongoing monitoring, safer pesticide alternatives, and the promotion of sustainable agricultural practices.

In terms of toxicity, the detected pesticides were classified based on the World Health Organization (WHO)’s toxicity classification system [39], which ranks compounds according to their potential to cause acute harm to human health. A small portion, 1% of the detected pesticides, were classified under Class Ia, which is considered extremely hazardous. This category includes sulfotep, a highly toxic organophosphate insecticide that poses significant risks and requires stringent safety measures to avoid accidental poisoning. Highly toxic pesticides such as methomyl and carbofuran fall under Class Ib, representing 6% of the identified compounds (Figure 2). These pesticides pose a significant risk due to their high toxicity, and they should be handled in line with strict safety measures to prevent accidental poisoning. Approximately 21% of the detected pesticides were classified as Class II, indicating that they are moderately hazardous. Compounds in this category, such as chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin, can cause acute health effects at relatively low exposure levels and require careful management to limit exposure, particularly in agricultural settings. A smaller portion of the compounds, around 4%, fell under Class III (slightly hazardous), meaning that while they pose some risk, they are less likely to cause acute harm in typical exposure scenarios. These include compounds like pendimethalin, which is commonly used as an herbicide but presents lower immediate toxicity risks compared to the more hazardous classes.

The largest proportion, about 68%, was categorized under Class U, meaning that these pesticides are unlikely to present an acute hazard in normal use conditions (Figure 2). These compounds, such as azoxystrobin and metalaxyl, generally have low toxicity and are commonly used in agricultural practices with less stringent safety requirements, though long-term or chronic exposure may still pose environmental or health risks. This distribution of toxicity classes highlights the varying levels of risk associated with pesticide use in agriculture, with a substantial portion (68%) of pesticides posing low acute risks under normal conditions of use, while the remainder (32%) require more careful handling and regulatory control to mitigate potential health impacts.

3.2. Regional Variation and Implications for Agricultural Practices

The analysis of pesticide contamination across different governorates in Egypt revealed significant regional variations, reflecting the country’s diverse agricultural practices and environmental conditions. The data highlight the wide disparity in contamination levels across both urban and rural markets, necessitating a closer examination of the underlying factors contributing to these differences.

As shown in

Table 2. Distribution of pesticide contamination levels across governorates: number of markets and number of contaminated samples.

Governorate	Number of Markets	Number of Samples Collected	Samples Contaminated with Pesticides	Percentage (%) of Contaminated Samples
Alexandria	1	210	82	39%
Asyut	1	210	92	44%
Beheira	2	420	124	30%
Beni Suef	1	210	36	17%
Cairo	2	420	97	23%
Dakahlia	1	210	41	20%
Damietta	1	210	41	20%
Fayoum	1	210	48	23%
Gharbia	1	210	55	26%
Giza	2	420	142	34%
Ismailia	1	210	63	30%
Kafr El Sheikh	1	210	46	22%
Menoufia	1	210	55	26%
Minya	1	210	66	31%
Qalyubia	1	210	50	24%
Sharkia	1	210	63	30%
Sohag	1	210	54	26%

, Asyut had the highest contamination ratio, as 44% of the collected samples (92 samples) were contaminated. Alexandria followed, with a contamination ratio of 39% (82 samples), while Giza reported that 34% of its total samples were contaminated (142 samples). Despite having the highest number of contaminated samples, Giza’s contamination rate was relatively lower than Asyut’s, which may reflect different agricultural practices or pest control methods used in these regions. The extensive agricultural activities in Giza and Beheira (which had a contamination ratio of 30% across 124 samples) likely contribute to the higher absolute number of contaminated samples in these areas. Both regions are known for large-scale, intensive farming operations aimed at meeting domestic and international market demands. Such operations often rely heavily on pesticides to control pests, which correlates with the contamination observed in these governorates. These findings align with previous studies that indicate a positive correlation between agricultural intensification and pesticide use [40].

Urban centers like Cairo and Alexandria reported contamination rates of 23% (97 samples) and 39% (82 samples), respectively. Although these regions are not primarily agricultural, their role as major distribution hubs for agricultural products increases their susceptibility to pesticide contamination. The contamination in these markets suggests that pesticide residues are being transferred along the supply chain, from farm to market, ultimately affecting urban consumers. This emphasizes the need for the monitoring and controlling of pesticide residues not only at the point of production but throughout the entire supply chain to ensure food safety [41]. Furthermore, the contamination levels in Cairo and Alexandria highlight the challenge of enforcing consistent pesticide regulations in markets that source produce from a wide range of agricultural areas [42].

The contamination rates across Upper Egypt also showed variations. Asyut had the highest contamination ratio at 44%, while Minya reported a contamination rate of 31% (66 samples). These governorates are key agricultural regions, particularly for cereal, cotton, and vegetable production. The higher contamination levels in Asyut may reflect more intensive farming practices or a greater reliance on pesticides for pest control, while Minya’s lower levels might indicate a shift towards more sustainable agricultural practices. However, both regions demonstrate the need for better education and training for farmers on the appropriate use of pesticides, including for adhering to recommended dosages and respecting pre-harvest intervals [43].

Governorates such as Sharkia, Ismailia, and Sohag had contamination ratios of 30%, 30%, and 26%, respectively. These regions are important agricultural zones in Egypt, particularly for the production of fruits and vegetables, which are crops often associated with higher pesticide use due to their susceptibility to pests [44]. The consistent contamination levels across these regions suggest that similar farming practices and pesticide application patterns may be prevalent. This further emphasizes the need for targeted intervention programs that address the specific challenges of pesticide use in these areas. Implementing IPM strategies, which combine biological, mechanical, and chemical control methods, could significantly reduce pesticide reliance and help lower contamination levels in these regions [45].

In contrast, lower contamination levels were observed in governorates such as Fayoum (23%, 48 samples), Dakahlia (20%, 41 samples), and Beni Suef (17%, 36 samples). These regions may benefit from more diversified agricultural practices or reduced reliance on chemical pesticides, possibly due to greater adoption of alternative pest control strategies. Fayoum, for example, is known for its use of traditional agricultural techniques, which may contribute to its relatively low pesticide contamination levels [43]. Similarly, Dakahlia and Beni Suef’s lower contamination levels may reflect either lower pesticide use overall or the adoption of practices that minimize pesticide residues, such as crop rotation or the use of organic fertilizers [46].

The observed regional variations in pesticide contamination have significant implications for agricultural practices across Egypt. Regions with high contamination levels, such as Asyut (44%) and Beheira (30%), require immediate attention in terms of stricter pesticide regulation and the promotion of sustainable farming practices. The high contamination levels in these areas suggest that farmers may not be fully aware of the potential health and environmental risks associated with excessive pesticide use [47]. Governmental bodies and agricultural agencies must prioritize farmer education programs that emphasize the safe use of pesticides, proper application methods, and the importance of adhering to regulatory guidelines for pesticide residue limits.

Furthermore, the moderate contamination levels in regions such as Sharkia, Ismailia, and Sohag call for a region-specific approach to pesticide management. These areas could benefit from enhanced monitoring of pesticide residues in agricultural products and the promotion of IPM practices, which have been shown to reduce pesticide use while maintaining crop productivity [45]. In these regions, improving access to alternative pest control technologies, such as biological control agents and resistant crop varieties, could further reduce contamination risks. The relatively lower contamination levels in Fayoum, Dakahlia, and Beni Suef present an opportunity to promote these regions as models for sustainable agricultural practices. These areas could serve as examples for other governorates, demonstrating how reduced pesticide use can be achieved without compromising crop yields. Encouraging the adoption of similar practices in other parts of Egypt could help reduce the overall pesticide burden and improve food safety across the country [48].

Lastly, the data underscore the importance of regionalized agricultural management in Egypt. Policymakers must consider each governorate’s specific needs and challenges when implementing regulations and support programs aimed at reducing pesticide contamination. Promoting sustainable practices, enhancing farmer education, and improving monitoring efforts can mitigate the risks associated with pesticide use and ensure the long-term health of both consumers and the environment.

3.3. Risk Assessment through Dietary Exposure

The assessment of health risks associated with pesticide use is particularly crucial for crops with multiple harvest times, such as cucumber, squash, and eggplant, which have short pre-harvest intervals. Consumer risk is evaluated by estimating dietary exposure to pesticides in these crops and comparing the exposure levels to the ADI to calculate the HI. Dietary exposure is determined by considering food consumption rates, average body weight, and the detected pesticide residue levels in these commodities. The health risk (HR) assessment for consumers due to the intake of pesticide-contaminated vegetables was evaluated using the HI. The food is deemed safe for consumption when the HI is below 100%. However, if the HI exceeds 100%, the food poses a potential risk to consumers [26].

Based on the IEDI (2014) [48,49] report, the average daily consumption of different commodities by Egyptian adults is estimated as 0.02917 kg for cantaloupe, 0.03492 kg for cucumber, 0.02012 kg for eggplant, 0.00203 kg for onion/green onion, 0.00082 kg for lettuce, 0.00157 kg for okra, 0.00157 kg for parsley, 0.038 kg for peas, and 0.00236 kg for squash. In this study, the estimated intake values of pesticide residues detected in the analyzed vegetables were calculated to assess the potential health risks to consumers based on their consumption patterns. The EDI of pesticides identified in the tested commodities—cucumber, squash, eggplant, okra, peas, onion, green onion, parsley, lettuce, and cantaloupe—did not exceed the ADI limits. This suggests that there are no chronic health risks to consumers that arise from the pesticide residues in these vegetables, based on the IEDI (2014) [49] report.

Data in

Table 3. EDIs and HI for various commodities.

Commodity	EDIs (mg kg−1 bw day−1)		HI %
	Min	Max	Min	Max
Cantaloupe	4.1 × 10−7	9.2 × 10−4	0.0002	4.6103
Lettuce	1.2 × 10−8	5.9 × 10−5	0.000003	0.591025
Parsley	1.1 × 10−8	1.8 × 10−4	0.00001	7.3
Onion and Green Onion	2.9 × 10−8	2.8 × 10−4	0.00001	3.2
Peas	5.4 × 10−7	2.3 × 10−3	0.0003	46.4
Okra	2.2 × 10−8	5.7 × 10−6	0.00001	0.09
Eggplant	2.8 × 10−7	1.9 × 10−4	0.001	3.2
Squash	6.7 × 10−8	2.1 × 10−5	0.00005	0.42
Cucumber	4.9 × 10−7	6.4 × 10−4	0.00017	39.5

show that the HI for cucumber samples ranged from 0.0002% for propamocarb to 39.5% for oxamyl. For squash samples, HI values ranged from 0.0001% for azoxystrobin to 0.42% for dimethoate. In eggplant samples, the HI ranged from 0.001% for azoxystrobin to 3.22% for omethoate, while okra samples had HI values ranging from 0.0001% for kresoxim-methyl to 0.089% for omethoate. For peas, the HI values ranged from 0.0003% for azoxystrobin to 46.4% for methamidophos. Onion/green onion samples showed HI values of 0.00001% for chlorantraniliprole and 3.2% for carbofuran. Parsley samples were found to have HI values of 0.00001% for kresoxim-methyl and 7.25% for lambda-cyhalothrin. In lettuce samples, the HI ranged from 0.000003% for chlorantraniliprole to 0.59% for chlorpyrifos. Finally, cantaloupe samples showed HI values between 0.0002% for chlorantraniliprole and 4.6% for thiophanate-methyl. Across all commodities, none of the HI values exceeded the ADI. The highest HI values were recorded for the methamidophos organophosphate insecticide in pea samples (46.4% and 42.2.73%), followed by oxamyl nematicide, which was detected in cucumber (39.5%) but did not exceed the ADI.

4. Conclusions

This study provides valuable insights into the presence of pesticide residues in vegetables consumed across Egypt, highlighting the importance of ongoing monitoring and regulatory oversight. While some samples contained pesticide residues, the majority of vegetables tested were within safe limits, with EDI levels falling below the ADI thresholds. These results indicate that, overall, there is no significant chronic health risk to consumers. However, to ensure continued food safety, promoting sustainable agricultural practices and region-specific interventions that reduce pesticide use is essential. By supporting these initiatives and maintaining compliance with national and international standards, Egypt can continue to provide safe, high-quality produce for local and global markets.