1. Introduction
Lipophilicity is one of the most important parameters determining the pharmacodynamic, pharmacokinetic, and toxicity parameters of many compounds. It determines the affinity of the molecule for the organic phase, which relates to the intermolecular interactions occurring between the solute and solvent molecules [
1,
2]. Lipophilicity can be determined by both direct and indirect methods. One of the direct methods is the shake-flask procedure, which determines lipophilicity as the relationship of the concentration of a compound in
n-octanol and water. This method gives encouraging results, but it has many disadvantages, such as a tedious process, being time-consuming, a large amount of compound needed, and the requirement of a compound with a high purity. The indirect methods are based on chromatographic techniques, likes reversed-phase thin layer chromatography (RP-TLC), normal-phase thin layer chromatography (NP-TLC), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The easy experimental procedure, low cost, and ability to test multiple compounds in a single run make RP-TLC the most used method to determine lipophilicity [
2,
3,
4,
5,
6,
7,
8].
Betulin
1, derived from white species of birch bark, exhibits a wide spectrum of activity, including anticancer, antimicrobial, anti-viral, and anti-inflammatory properties. The chemical structure of betulin
1 contains four six-membered rings and one five-membered ring. Additionally, in their structure, there are two hydroxyl groups at the C-3 and C-28 positions, and an isopropenyl group at the C-19 position (
Figure 1). Modification at these positions can lead to new semi-synthetic derivatives, which exhibit a better biological activity and bioavailability [
9,
10].
Many articles on new hybrids of botulin, formed by combinations with other bioactive substances, like coumarin acid, ferrocene acid, artemisinin acid, and azidothymidine, have appeared in the literature in recent years. The combination of two active substances results in new hybrids with a better activity and low toxicity [
11,
12,
13,
14,
15].
The lipophilicity of betulin derivatives was first described by Achrem-Achremowicz. This research showed that the lipophilic parameter depends on the type of substituent at the C-3 and C-28 positions, but the pH of the mobile phase does not affect the lipophilicity [
16]. According to the literature data, a relationship between the structure and lipophilicity of different mono- and di-substituted derivatives of betulin was found. This research showed that the substituent significantly affects the partition coefficient (log P). Moreover, the log P value was also strongly affected by different pharmacokinetic properties, like polar surface, polarizability, molecular volume, and molecular refraction. In many cases, no correlation between the experimental lipophilicity and biological activity of the compounds was found [
4,
6,
17,
18].
The present study aimed to determine the experimental and theoretical values of lipophilicity for betulin-1,4-quinone hybrids. The cluster analyses for the lipophilicity of hybrids allowed us to determine the relationship between the structure and lipophilic properties. Moreover, the correlation between the lipophilicity and pharmacokinetic properties was also analyzed. This study also conducted an analysis of the relationship between the biological properties, like anticancer activity and NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1), and lipophilicity of hybrids.
3. Results and Discussion
Hybrids
2–
16 and betulin
1 were analyzed using the RP-TLC method, and the R
M0 and
b parameters were calculated based on Equations (1) and (2). The hydrophobic index (ϕ
0) for each compound was calculated according to Equation (3) (
Table 2).
In order to obtain the logP
TLC value, a calibration curve used needed. As standard substances, acetanilide, 4-bromoacetophenone, benzophenone, anthracene, dibenzyl, 9-phenylanthracene, and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) were used, for which the literature logP
lit values were in the range of 1.21–6.38 [
27,
28]. The R
M0 for each standard compound was determined in the same condition as for hybrids
2–
16 (
Table 3).
A linear relation between the literature logP
lit and the experimental R
M0 is described by Equation (4).
The calibration curve was used to calculate the logP
TLC value of hybrids
2–
16 and betulin (
1) (
Table 2). In the group of tested compounds, betulin
1 showed the lowest lipophilicity parameter (logP
TLC = 5.34). The introduction of 1,4-quinone moiety led to an increase in lipophilicity, resulting in logP
TLC in the range of 6.36–8.12.
In the group of betulin-5,8-quinolinedione hybrids (
2–
6), the lowest lipophilicity showed compound
2 containing the hydroxyl group at the C-3 position of the betulin moiety. The replacement of this hydroxyl group with an acetyl group caused an increase in lipophilicity. A comparison of logP
TLC for hybrids
3 and
4 showed that the elongation of the chain at the C-28 position created in an increase in lipophilicity. For hybrids
2–
6, the order of the logP
TLC decrease was as follows:
5 >
4 =
3 >
6 >
2. The introduction of the methyl group at the C-2′ position of 5,8-quinolinedione moiety, as seen for compounds
7–
11, led to a slight increase in lipophilicity. In this group of compounds, the lowest value of logP
TLC was exhibited by hybrid
7. In the series of tested hybrids (
2–
16), the highest lipophilicity showed derivatives containing the 1,4-naphthoquinone moiety (
12–
16). For
12–
16, the lowest lipophilicity was exhibited by compound
15, which contained the propynoiloxy moiety at the C-28 position of betulin. The obtained results show that lipophilicity depends on the type of 1,4-quinone, and follows the order 5,8-quinolinedione > 2-methyl-5,8-qinolinedione > 1,4-naphthoquinone (
Figure 2).
Hydrophobicity is the capability of non-polar molecules or groups to form an association in water, and is measured by the hydrophobic index (ϕ
0). A higher index means that the compound is less soluble in water [
3,
29]. Hybrids
2–
16 are characterized by a high value of ϕ
0 index, which varies in the range of 88.67–95.74. A comparison of the hydrophobicity of betulin
1 (ϕ
0 = 87.09) and its derivatives (
2–
16) shows that the introduction of 1,4-quinone moiety slightly influenced their solubility in water.
The next step of the research was to determine the logP parameter using the available computer software [
20,
21,
22,
23]. Depending on the mathematical module of the program used, the obtained values of the calculated logP covered a wide range, from 5.34 to 13.33 (
Table 4).
The highest values of lipophilicity were obtained using the ACD/logP program. However, the values that were the most similar to the experimental ones (logP
TLC values), were found using the ACLOGP program (
Figure 2). The presented calculations show that betulin
1 has the lowest lipophilicity, which is consistent with its logP
TLC value (
Figure 2). The introduction of the 1,4-quinone moiety caused an increase in lipophilicity, which is consistent with experimental results. As shown in
Figure 2, hybrids
5,
10, and
15 had the highest calculated value of lipophilicity. In addition, the lowest values were found for compounds
2,
6, and
11. These results are similar to the experimental results. In each group of compounds, there were hybrids with the same molecular formula, like
3 and
4,
8 and
9, and
13 and
14 (
Table 4 and
Figure 2). In these cases, the calculated lipophilicity was the same for both compounds, regardless of the calculation method, but the experimental lipophilicity was different. These results show that in many cases, the theoretical calculation is not enough for the evaluation of the lipophilic parameters of compounds.
Table 5 presents the parameters of the correlation equation between logP
TLC and the calculated logP. The correlation coefficients are high (
r = 0.864 − 0.815) for most programs. The exceptions are ALOGP, milogP, and MolLogP, for which the
r value varied in the range of 0.702–0.638.
The cluster analysis (similarity analysis) was performed for all of the results, for both the experimental and theoretical values of lipophilicity. The results are presented in
Figure 3.
The similarity analysis shows three main clusters. The first consists of compounds 5, 10, and 15; the second 6, 11, and 16; and the third 1–4, 7–9, and 12–14. In the first and second clusters, hybrids are arranged according to the type of betulinyloxy fragment, which means that hybrids with 28-propynoyl-3-betulinyloxy and 3,28-diacetyl-30-betulinyloxy moieties have been recognized, respectively. In these two clusters, a strong relationship between lipophilicity and the structure of compounds can be observed. Derivatives 5, 10, and 15 have a different 1,4-quinone moiety at the C-3 position, while 6, 11, and 16 show structural similarity associated with the presence of the 1,4-quinone moiety at the C-30 position.
The third biggest cluster can be divided into two subclusters, and betulin (1), which differed from the others in this group. The first subcluster consists of 1,4-naphthoquinone compounds 12–14, and the second one of 5,8-quinolinedione (2–4) and 2-methyl-5,8-quinolinedione (7–9) hybrids. Hybrids 2–4 and 7–9 show a similar value of lipophilicity. The similarity analysis shows a strong correlation between the lipophilicity and structure of the tested compounds (2–16).
The physicochemical parameters, such as molecular mass (M), topological polar surface area (TPSA), number of the donors (nHD) and acceptors (nHA) of the hydrogen bond, and number of rotatable bonds (nRT), are usually used to assess the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of the compound in the biological system [
30,
31,
32]. An important property of the synthesized compounds is their penetration through the blood–brain barrier (BBB), which allows for predicting their neurotoxicity. All parameters were calculated using pkCMS software [
24]. The results are presented in
Table 6.
Lipinski was the first researcher who studied the penetration of different compounds through biological membranes. He found that this penetration depends on the molecular mass of the compound, its lipophilicity, and the number of the donors and acceptors of hydrogen. Veber’s rules are a modification of Lipiński’s rules, and they introduce some changes, namely, the molecular mass has been replaced by the topological polar surface area and the number of rotatable bonds has been added [
33,
34]. Betulin
1 meets the mass criterion (M < 500 g/mol), while the introduction of the 1,4-quinone moiety leads to an increase in molecular mass above 500 g/mol. All compounds
1–
16 have less than 5 hydrogen bond donors (nHD = 0–2), less than 10 hydrogen bond acceptors (nHA = 2–8), and less than 10 rotatable bonds (nRT = 2–9), which means that these compounds meet Veber’s criteria. A comparison of the nHD and nRT of betulin
1 and hybrids
2–
16 shows that the introduction of the 1,4-quinone moiety causes an increase in both parameters. The TPSA of compounds
1–
16 varies in the range of 40.46–108.86 Å
2, which determines the high oral bioavailability [
34]. According to the literature, if for a given compound the logBB > 0.3, it is considered to have the possibility of rapid penetration by the blood–brain barrier, if logBB < −1, there is a poor distribution to the brain [
35,
36]. The logBB values for hybrids
2–
16 are lower than 0.3, which suggests that these compounds could have a low permeability through BBB. Moreover, two of them,
6 and
11, show log BB < −1, which means they do not penetrate the central nervous system.
The correlation between logP
TLC and the calculated parameters is characterized by low regression coefficients (
r = 0.066–0.624). The results indicate that there is no significant relationship between the lipophilicity and pharmacokinetic parameters. As an additional description of the analyzed hybrids (
2–
16), cluster analysis was performed, taking into account the experimental lipophilicity values and the physicochemical (M, nHA, nHD, nRT, and TPSA) and pharmacokinetics properties (logBB). The results are presented in
Figure 4.
As can be seen in
Figure 4, there are several clusters. Compounds
6,
11, and
16, containing the 1,4-quinone moiety at the C-30 of 3,24-diacetyl-30-betulinyloxy, form the first cluster. Hybrids
13,
14, and
15 with the 1,4-naphthoquinone fragment at different positions of the betulinyloxy moiety, form another cluster. Derivatives
3–
5 and
8–
10 containing the 5,8-quinolinedione or 2-methyl-5,8-quinolinedione moiety in their structure, are the next cluster. The last cluster is formed by compounds with the 28-betulinyloxy moiety. The obtained results show that there is no correlation between the lipophilicity and pharmacokinetics parameters for the tested hybrids (
2–
16).
The next step of the research was the analysis of the biological activity of hybrids
2–16. It was found that derivatives
2–
16, which exhibit a high anticancer activity against the lung cancer cell line (A549), also have a high level of the NOQ1 protein (
Table 7) [
19]. For this reason, all compounds were tested as a substrate of NAD[P]H-quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1). In this assay, hybrids at a concentration of 10 µmol/L were incubated with human NQO1 and NADPH. Streptonigrin was used as a reference compound. The results of the quinone reduction are expressed in units µmol·L
−1 NADPH oxidized·min
−1·µmol
−1 NQO1 in
Table 7.
Hybrids 2–16 show good reduction rates using NQO1, indicating that these compounds are good substrates for this protein. They show also higher metabolic rates (1040–2192 μmolNADPH/μmolNQO1/min) in comparison with streptonigrin (621 μmolNADPH/μmolNQO1/min). In the group of 5,8-quinolinedione derivatives (2–6), hybrid 5 exhibits the highest enzymatic conversion rates, which are 3.5-time higher than for streptonigrin. Moreover, this compound exhibits a high activity against A549 cells. The introduction of the ethanoyl group at the C-28 position of botulin, instead of the propynoyl group (4 and 5), causes a decrease in the enzymatic conversion rates. A comparison of the 5,8-quinolinedione (2–6) and 2-methyl-5,8-quinolinedione (7–11) hybrids suggests that the introduction of the methyl group at the 5,8-quinonedione moiety causes an increase in enzymatic conversion rates. The exceptions are compounds 5 and 10, for which the introduction of the 5,8-quinolinedione moiety gives more active derivatives than those with the 2-methyl-5,8-quinolinedione moiety. In the group of the 1,4-naphthoquinone compound (12–16), derivative 14 shows the highest enzymatic conversion rates. The correlation of the NQO1 activity with IC50 values against A549 cells shows high regression coefficients (r = 0.773), suggesting that for this group of analogs, the anticancer activity refers to its interaction with the NQO1 protein.
The next step in the research was the analysis of the correlation between the experimental lipophilicity (logP
TLC), cytotoxic activity, and NQO1 activity. The calculated regression coefficient was low (
r = 0.140–0.174), which means there is no significant relationship between lipophilicity and activity. The next similarity analysis was done for the experimental lipophilicity and biological activity (IC
50 and NQO1 activity;
Figure 5).
Figure 5 shows that there are two main clusters. The first consists of compounds with a low value of NQO1 activity, like
3,
4,
6,
12, and
16. The second consists of hybrids
2,
5,
7–
11, and
13–
15; however, it is difficult to find the similarity in the structure of these derivatives. This result shows that there is no relationship between lipophilicity and the biological activity of hybrids
2–
16.