Carbon Mineralization by Reaction with Steel-Making Waste: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. CO2 Storage
1.2. Mineral Carbon Sequestration
1.3. Indirect Carbonation
2. Direct Carbonation
2.1. Gas-Solid Carbonation
2.2. Direct Aqueous Carbonation
- (1)
- Dissolution of alkali earth element into the solution (leaching step).
- (2)
- Formation of mineral carbonate (carbonation step).
3. Steelmaking Waste Mineral Carbonation
3.1. Temperature and Particle Size
3.2. Liquid to Solid Ratio
3.3. Pressure
4. Summary and Future Prospective
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Reservoir Type | Estimated Range of Storage Capacity (GtCO2) |
---|---|
Mineral carbonation | Very large (>10,000) a |
Saline aquifers | 1000–10,000 |
Oil and gas fields | 675–900 b |
Coal beds | 3–200 |
Mineral/Formula | U (mass CO2/mass mineral) |
---|---|
Serpentine (Mg3Si2O5(OH)4) | 0.40 |
Serpentine ((Mg,Fe)3Si2O5(OH)4) | 0.48 |
Wollastonite (CaSiO3) | 0.36 |
Olivine (Fe2SiO4) | 0.36 |
Olivine (Mg2SiO4) | 0.56 |
Alkaline Solid Waste | Production Per Year (t) | CO2 Emissions Per Year (t) a | Examples | Composition (wt.%) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Steel slags | 315–420 a | 171 a | Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) | Ca: 45–55, Mg: 2–5 Ca: 40–46, Mg: 1–6.5 Ca: 35–43, Mg: 4–7 | [17,22,23,24] |
Waste cement | 1100 a | 62 a | Cement kiln dust | Ca: 35–50, Mg: 0–2 | [25] |
Fly ash | 600 a | 12,000 a | Coal fly ash Oil shale ash | Ca: 35–53, Mg: 0–3 Ca: 10–25 | [26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34] |
Air pollution control (APC) residues | 1.2 b | N/A | Waste incineration plant residues | Ca: 35–38, Mg: 0–1 | [35,36] |
Red mud | 1.25 a | 3.6 a | Red gypsum | Ca: 1–6, Mg: 1–5 | [37] |
Pre-Treatment Method | Description | Advantages/Disadvantages | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Grinding (reduction in size) | Rock minerals undergo grinding process to reduce particle size of the minerals to less than 63 μm (smaller particles size, more surface area available) | Advantages:
Disadvantages:
| [43,44] |
Heat (thermal) activation | Naturally occurring minerals contains water molecules bounded to its chemical structure i.e., up to 13% of serpentine is water. By heating the mineral up to 600 °C water is removed and more mineral is available for carbonation | Advantages:
Disadvantages:
| [45,46] |
Surface activation | Increasing the mineral surface area by treating it with steam or extraction acids | Advantages:
Disadvantages:
| [47] |
Magnetic separation | The presence of iron element in mineral rocks can decrease the carbonation efficiency due to the formation iron oxides layers on the surface of the mineral. Separating iron compounds magnetically before carbonation can solve this issue | Advantages:
Disadvantages:
| [48] |
Sonication (ultrasound) | Ultrasound waves are used with extraction acid in conjunction to enhance the rate of mineral dissolution in the acid. The waves forms bubbles in the liquid that can enhance the mass transfer and the mineral dissolution rate. | Advantages:
Disadvantages:
| [49] |
Material | Carbonation Method | Composition (wt.%) | Maximum CO2 Uptake % | Reactor Type | Conditions/Remarks | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Serpentine | Direct aqueous carbonation | MgO: 40 | 30% | Batch | Temperature: 300 °C CO2 Partial pressure: 335.4 atm | [52] |
Olivine | Direct aqueous carbonation | CaO: 0.07 SiO2: 41.4 MgO: 49.7 Al2O3: 0.21 Fe2O3: 2.7 | 91% | CSTR | Temperature: 155 °C Process pressure: 185 atm | [53] |
Serpentine | Indirect using pH swing | - | 42% | Batch | Temperature: 70 °C Process pressure: 1 atm | [51] |
Serpentine | Direct aqueous carbonation | CaO: 0.15 SiO2: 39.5 MgO: 38.7 Al2O3: 0.35 Fe2O3: 4.86 | 7% | Batch | Temperature: 25 °C Process pressure: 125 atm | [46] |
Wollastonite CaSiO3 | Direct aqueous carbonation | - | 69% | Batch | Temperature: 200 °C Process pressure: 20 bar Particle size: <38 μm L/S: 2 | [54] |
Serpentinite | Dry carbonation | - | 50% | Fluidized bed | Temperature: 500 °C Process pressure: 20 bar | [55] |
Wollastonite CaSiO3 | Direct aqueous carbonation | - | 83.5% | Batch | Temperature: 150 °C Process pressure: 40 bar Particle size: <30 μm | [56] |
Serpentinite | Dry carbonation | MgO: 35.3 | 0.0075 gCO2/g serpentinite | Fluidized bed | Temperature: 90 °C Moist CO2 Process pressure: 1 bar | [57] |
Indirect Carbonation | Description/Reactions | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Acid extraction | Numerous acids are investigated in the literature as an extraction agent. Examples of these acids are: acetic acid, nitric acid, formic acid and hydrochloric acid. Acid extraction is achieved through multiple routes. The most straightforward extraction method includes mixing the mineral and the extracting agent in a stirred reactor or vessel at a certain temperature and pressure to extract the minerals, followed by carbonation process of the extracted mineral according to the following reactions: | [46] |
Molten salt | The molten salt process is aimed to reduce energy requirements resulting from HCl extraction. It shares many similarities with HCl extraction except the molten salt, , is being used as an extracting agent. | [12] |
Ammonia | Using as extraction agent according to the following reaction: | [51] |
Caustic soda | Using sodium hydroxide as an extracting agent: | [12] |
Bioleaching | Bioleaching is defined as the process of using bacteria to extract minerals from natural rocks, can be applied for the extraction of Ca & Mg oxides from silicates. | [58] |
Mineral | Maximum Carbonation Temperature (°C) |
---|---|
Olivine (Mg2SiO4) | 241 |
Wollastonite (CaSiO3) | 280 |
Calcium oxide (CaO)/Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) | 887 |
Magnesium oxide (MgO)/Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) | 406 |
Material | Carbonation Method | Composition (wt.%) | Maximum CO2 Uptake | Reactor Type | Conditions/Remarks | Year | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Steel Slag | Direct aqueous carbonation | Fe2O3: 35.5 CaO: 31.7 SiO2: 9.1 MgO: 6.0 | 74% of Ca content | Batch | CO2 pressure: 19 bar Temperature:100 °C Particle size: <38 Reaction time: 30 min | 2005 | [21] |
BSF | Indirect aqueous carbonation: (extraction) using acetic acid | CaO: 40.6 SiO2: 34.1 MgO: 10.7 Al2O3: 9.4 | 0.23 g CO2/g CaO | Stirred batch | 3.6 liters of Acetic acid was used to produce carbonates by leaching | 2008 | [50] |
Steel slag | Indirect carbonation | CaO: 32.1 SiO2: 19.4 MgO: 9.4 Al2O3: 8.6 Fe2O3: 26.4 | 30% | Batch | Slag was leached in deionized water Ambient temperature and pressure. Increasing the leachate temperature from 60 °C enhanced the Ca-leaching | 2008 | [70] |
LFS | Indirect aqueous carbonation | CaO: 58.1 SiO2: 26.4 MgO: 6.2 Al2O3: 4.6 FeO: 4.30 | 0.247 g CO2/g CaO | Stirred batch | L/S: 10 Temperature: 20 °C Process pressure: 1 bar CO2: 15 vol.% CO2 flowrate: 5 mL/min Rotational speed: 200 rpm | 2008 | [71] |
Steel slag | Indirect aqueous using pH swing using NH4Cl | CaO: 44.5 SiO2: 9.28 MgO:7.6 Fe2O3: 19.1 Al2O3: 2.3 | 70% of Ca content | Stirred batch | CO2: 13 vol.% Temperature: 80 °C Pressure: 1 atm Rotational speed: 300 rpm | 2008 | [72] |
APC | Direct aqueous carbonation | CaO: 35 SiO2: 1.01 Al2O3: 0.21 MgO: 0.84 | 0.25 g CO2/g CaO | Batch | CO2: 100 vol.% L/S: 0.2 Temperature: 30 °C Process pressure: 3 bar | 2009 | [36] |
EAF Slag | Indirect aqueous carbonation (extraction) using nitric acid | CaO: 41.6 SiO2: 18.8 MgO: 8.0 Al2O3: 3.4 | 0.359 g CO2/g CaO & MgO | Batch | L/S: 0.2 Temperature: 22 °C | 2010 | [73] |
Industrial wastes from acetylene production | Carbonation by atmospheric CO2 | CaO: 41.6 SiO2: 18.8 | 0.476 g CO2/g waste | N/A | L/S: 0.33 | 2010 | [74] |
BFS | Indirect carbonation (extraction) using nitric acid | CaO: 51.1 SiO2: 11.5 MgO: 4.2 Al2O3: 1.5 Fe2O3: 24.1 | 0.27 g CO/g CaO | Slurry | L/S: 10 Temperature: 70 °C CO2 Partial pressure: 101.3 kPa CO2 flowrate: 0.1 L/min Particles size: <44 | 2011 | [75] |
Steel slag | Direct aqueous carbonation | CaO: 38.84 MgO: 10.36 Al2O3: 3.91 Fe2O3: 32.8 | 93% based on CaO content | high-gravity rotating packed bed | Rotational speed: 750 rpm Temperature: 65 °C Process pressure: 1 bar L/S: 20 | 2012 | [76] |
BOFS | Direct aqueous carbonation | CaO: 36.37 MgO: 7 Al2O3: 1.89 Fe2O3: 10.36 | 99% based on CaO content | Rotating packed bed | Rotational speed: 1000 rpm Temperature: 25 °C L/S: 20 mg/L Process pressure: 1 bar CO2: 30 vol.% CO2 flowrate: 1.8 L/min | 2013 | [77] |
BOFS | Direct aqueous carbonation | CaO: 41.15 SiO2: 10.59 MgO: 9.21 Al2O3: 2.24 Fe2O3: 24.41 MnO: 2.75 | 89.4% | Slurry reactor | Temperature: 25 °C L/S: 20 CO2 pressure: 1 bar CO2 flowrate: 1 L/min Slurry volume: 350 mL | 2013 | [78] |
BSF | Indirect aqueous carbonation (extraction) using EDTA | CaO: 47.15 SiO2: 31.08 MgO: 3.34 Al2O3: 13.81 Fe2O3: 0.378 MnO: 0.71 | 0.09 g CO2/g slag | Batch | Temperature: 25 °C Process pressure: 1 bar CO2 flowrate: 1.5 L/min | 2013 | [17] |
Steel slag | Dry carbonation | - | 0.0449 g CO2/g slag | Batch | Temperature: 600 °C CO2%: 10 vol.% CO2 flowrate: 1.5 L/min | 2014 | [79] |
BOFS | Direct aqueous carbonation | CaO: 43 SiO2: 12.9 Fe2O3: 28.7 | 0.16 g CO2/g CaO | rotating packed bed | Rotational speed: 541 rpm Temperature: 25 °C L/S: 10 Process pressure: 1 bar | 2014 | [80] |
Steel slag | Indirect aqueous carbonation (extraction) using NH4SO4 | CaO: 38.98 SiO2: 12.13 MgO: 8.96 Al2O3: 2.74 Fe2O3: 22.53 MnO: 3.58 | 74% | Batch | Temperature: 65 °C L/S: 15 g/L Process pressure: 1 bar | 2014 | [24] |
Steel slag | Direct aqueous carbonation | CaO: 41.3 SiO2: 20.9 MgO: 6.2 Al2O3: 2.3 Fe2O3: 20.7 | 0.264 g CO2/g CaO | Batch | Temperature: 60 °C L/S: 10 CO2 flowrate: 0.6 L/min Process pressure: 10 bar CO2%: 100 vol.% | 2015 | [66] |
BOFS | Direct aqueous carbonation | CaO: 23 SiO2: 6 MgO: 3.8 Al2O3: 1.1 Fe2O3: 25 | 0.403 g CO2/g CaO | Batch | Temperature: 100 °C L/S: 5 L/kg CO2: 100 vol.% Process pressure: 10 bar Particle size: <150 μm | 2015 | [81] |
EAFS | Dry carbonation | CaO: 42.8 SiO2: 4.49 MgO: 4.96 Al2O3: 0.28 Fe2O3: 42.8 | 0.657 g/g CaO | Slurry | 2015 | [82] | |
BOFS | Direct aqueous carbonation | CaO: 51.1 SiO2: 11.2 MgO: 4.2 Al2O3: 1.2 Fe2O3: 24 | 57% | Batch | Temperature: 50 °C L/S: 20 mL/g CO2 flowrate: 0.1 L/min Process pressure: 1 bar | 2016 | [83] |
Steel slag | Dry carbonation | CaO: 28.27 SiO2: 15.4 MgO: 7.88 Al2O3: 1.01 Fe2O3: 24.25 | 0.011 g CO2/g slag | Batch | Temperature: 50 °C CO2: 100 vol.% | 2016 | [67] |
EAF | - | CaO: 33.19 SiO2: 16.71 MgO: 9.43 Al2O3: 6.73 Fe2O3: 38.19 | 0.052 g CO2/g slag | Batch | Temperature: 25 °C Process pressure: 10.68 bar L/S: 10 | 2016 | [68] |
BOF | Direct aqueous carbonation | CaO: 31 SiO2: 5.1 MgO: 7.5 Fe2O3: 27 | 0.536 g CO2/g slag | Batch | Temperature: 83.7 °C Process pressure: 5.9 bar L/S: 5 L/kg CO2: 60.6 vol.% | 2016 | [84] |
BFS | Direct aqueous carbonation | CaO: 42.5 SiO2: 31.9 MgO: 4.81 Al2O3: 13 Fe2O3: 0.34 | 0.0295 g CO2/g slag | Batch | Temperature: 50 °C Process pressure: 5 bar L/S: 3 CO2: 100 vol.% | 2017 | [69] |
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Ibrahim, M.H.; El-Naas, M.H.; Benamor, A.; Al-Sobhi, S.S.; Zhang, Z. Carbon Mineralization by Reaction with Steel-Making Waste: A Review. Processes 2019, 7, 115. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr7020115
Ibrahim MH, El-Naas MH, Benamor A, Al-Sobhi SS, Zhang Z. Carbon Mineralization by Reaction with Steel-Making Waste: A Review. Processes. 2019; 7(2):115. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr7020115
Chicago/Turabian StyleIbrahim, Mohamed H., Muftah H. El-Naas, Abdelbaki Benamor, Saad S. Al-Sobhi, and Zhien Zhang. 2019. "Carbon Mineralization by Reaction with Steel-Making Waste: A Review" Processes 7, no. 2: 115. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr7020115