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Review

A Review of Processes for Synthesis of Nanostructured TiC

by
Xiaoping Wu
1,2,*,
Wenjing Li
1,2 and
Yijie Hu
1,2
1
State Key Laboratory of Vanadium and Titanium Resources Comprehensive Utilization, Panzhihua 617000, China
2
Chengdu Advanced Metal Materials Industry Technology Research Institute Co., Ltd., Chengdu 610300, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Processes 2026, 14(11), 1830; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14111830 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 24 April 2026 / Revised: 30 May 2026 / Accepted: 1 June 2026 / Published: 5 June 2026
(This article belongs to the Section Materials Processes)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Titanium carbide (TiC) is a technologically important material, which is used in industrial and engineering applications as an abrasive, a wear-resistant material, reinforcement in composites, as well as an electrocatalysis material. This review summarizes the state-of-the-art processes for the synthesis of TiC, for instance, carbothermal reduction, combustion reactions, sol–gel processing, gas phase reaction, and mechanical alloying. Moreover, this review updates the various processes used for the synthesis of nanostructured titanium carbide and its process mechanisms. Nanostructured titanium carbide can be synthesized through optimizing thermal reduction processes, using more reactive titanium-containing precursors, a gas phase reaction or mechanical alloying processes. Under these reaction conditions, reactants are more reactive to overcome the kinetic barriers and the reaction processes proceed at a much lower temperature or have a shorter duration. The sol–gel process allows the formation of nanostructured TiC at a relatively low temperature due to the high reactivity of the sol–gel precursors. Mechanical alloying processing is a versatile method to produce nanostructured TiC. Gas phase processing allows nanostructured TiC formed in particles or in films. Nanostructured TiC has the potential to enhance the performance of TiC as a technological material, which is attractive for various applications in industrial and engineering fields.

1. Introduction

Titanium carbide (TiC) is a metal carbide that has properties including a high melting point, high hardness, wear resistance, excellent electrical and thermal conductivity, thermal resistance and high thermal stability [1,2]. It is a technologically important material widely used in industrial and engineering applications, including in cutting tools, as wear-resistant materials, and for reinforcing components in composites [3,4,5,6,7]. Because of its unique combination of physical and chemical properties, such as chemical resistance, thermal stability, and electron transfer capability [8,9,10,11], titanium carbide is also used as a catalyst or catalytic support material in various industrial and chemical processes [12,13,14,15,16].
The synthesis of titanium carbide generally involves high temperature or energetic reactions, including carbothermal reduction, combustion reactions, sol–gel processing, gas phase reactions, and mechanical alloying. TiC synthesized with different process methods exhibits different characteristics in terms of particle size and morphology, agglomeration state, and chemical purity. TiC with different characteristics and its modification or combination with other materials can alter the physical and chemical properties of TiC. Traditionally, the synthesis of TiC through carbothermal reaction is carried out at a temperature range of 1700–2300 °C for a number of hours. The particle sizes of as-synthesized TiC are generally in the range of micrometers. Because of the unique properties arising from the high surface area, sizes, morphology, as well as special surface characteristics, the synthesis of nanostructured TiC has become increasingly important. Nanostructured titanium carbides, with at least one dimension between 1 nm and 100 nm, may exhibit significant differences in their physical and chemical properties, which can affect its technological applications in a number of areas, such as in alloy refining and reinforcing, surface engineering, heat management, electrochemical catalysis, and energy generation and storage [17,18,19]. Therefore, it is highly desirable to investigate various processes and mechanisms for synthesizing nanostructured titanium carbide with controlled morphology. While a conventional carbothermal reduction method is used to synthesize TiC particles with particle sizes in the micrometer range, a number of processes or methods are being advanced and emerging for synthesizing nanostructured TiC, or TiC-related composite materials, enabling new or improved applications of TiC to a wide range of research or advanced engineering applications. The new advances, such as machine-learning-guided design and the creation of more complex 3D functional structures, will have an impact on the research and development of TiC-based materials and related processes [20,21,22].
There are a number of articles that provide reviews on various aspects of TiC. Mhadhbi et al. published a review article titled: Titanium carbide: synthesis, properties and applications, which focused on the influence of titanium carbide synthesis methods on their properties and applications [23]. Dong et al. published an article titled: The synthesis, structure, morphology, characterizations and evolution mechanisms of nanosized titanium carbides and their further applications. In this article, the synthesis methods and mechanisms, the corresponding growth morphologies of titanium carbides and their further applications were briefly reviewed and analyzed according to their different morphological dimensions, including one-dimensional nanostructures, two-dimensional nanosheets and three-dimensional nanoparticles [19]. There are also other review articles, which specifically review and analyze TiC synthesis, properties or applications in one of the particularly interesting research areas. Larhlimi et al. reviewed the science and technology of titanium carbide-based coatings [24]. Saha et al. reviewed the progress on the use of TiC as an electrocatalyst for fuel cells and electrolyzers [25]. Based on the recent progresses in TiC synthesis and applications, this paper summarizes and updates the various processes used for the synthesis of titanium carbide and the process mechanisms in which titanium carbide is formed with different morphological characteristics. The focus of this review is the reaction processes and conditions needed to create nanostructured titanium carbide, and its applications in a number of existing and emerging areas. Future research directions for nanostructured titanium carbide are also discussed.

2. Phase Diagrams, Structures, and Properties

TiCx exists as a uniform phase in the range of 0.47 < x < 1.0. When x = 0.45, it exists as a two-phase mixture of titanium and TiC [26]. The phase diagram of Ti-C is shown in Figure 1. Varying with the composition, the melting point of TiCx is in the range of 1918–3210 K, with the highest melting temperature at the point x = 1.0.
The lattice structure of titanium carbide is face-centered cubic, with a space group of Fm3m and a unit cell parameter of 0.4329 ± 0.0001 nm [28]. The lattice parameters depend on the stoichiometric ratio and its value decreases with the decrease in carbon content [29]. Titanium carbide is a metal carbide characterized by a high melting point, hardness, excellent thermal and electrical conductivity, and high thermal stability. The physical and chemical properties of titanium carbide are summarized in Table 1.

3. Processes for TiC Synthesis

TiC is synthesized by different process methods, including carbothermal reduction, combustion reactions, sol–gel, gas phase reactions, and mechanical alloying. The synthesis of TiC powder usually requires precursors containing Ti and C, and reaction at a high temperature or with a high energy input. The precursors containing Ti can be Ti metal, TiCl4, TiO2, and other titanium-containing compounds. The carbon source is carbon, organic compounds, or polymers.

3.1. Carbothermal Reduction

The precursors used for carbothermal reduction to synthesize TiC are generally titanium dioxide (TiO2) and carbon. The reaction is shown as in Equation (1) [32]:
TiO2 (s) + 3C (s) = TiC (s) + 2CO (g)
This reaction is highly endothermic and proceeds above 1289 °C for a partial pressure of CO below 1.013 × 105 Pa [33]. The Gibbs free energy changes in Equation (1) at different temperatures are calculated and shown in Figure 2 [34,35]. As can be seen from Figure 2, Gibbs free energy changes in reaction (1) decrease as the partial pressure of CO decreases. If the concentration of CO is kept low enough, the reaction is thermodynamically possible for a wide range of temperature conditions. However, because of kinetic barriers, the synthesis of TiC through reaction (1) is typically carried out at a temperature range of 1700–2300 °C for 10–24 h.
The process of forming titanium carbide from titanium dioxide is very complex, involving a number of consecutive reactions as shown in Equations (2)–(6) [36,37,38,39].
xTiO2 + C = TixO2x−1 + CO (x > 4)
4TixO2x−1 + (x − 4)C = xTi4O7 + (x − 4)CO (x > 4)
3Ti4O7 + C = 4Ti3O5 + CO
2Ti3O5 + C = 3Ti2O3 + CO
Ti2O3 + (1 + 4x)C = 2TiCxO1−x + (1 + 2x)CO
In the initial reduction: TiO2 is reduced by carbon to titanium oxides (TixO2x−1) and (Ti3O5) at around 1000–1100 °C. In the intermediate stage of the reduction: Ti3O5 is reduced to Ti2O3 at temperatures higher than 1300 °C. In the oxycarbide formation stage: Ti2O3 reacts with carbon to form titanium oxycarbide (TiCxO1−x). In the final stage of the reduction: The TiCxO1−x phase loses oxygen completely and transforms to TiC at temperatures usually above 1400–1500 °C. Research has found that the sizes of carbon particles, uniformity of carbon/oxide mixtures, reaction temperature, and gas flow are important process parameters for rapid reactions [40]. In practice, the use of excess carbon in Equation (1) is to ensure the reaction goes to completion, achieving a high yield, and is also beneficial for the formation of TiC with a better crystal structure.
Koc et al. synthesized titanium carbide by reacting TiO2 with carbon in flowing argon gas at 1550 °C for 4 h. The resulting TiC powder has a particle size (0.3–0.6 μm) and a lattice parameter of 0.4328 nm [41]. They also used carbon-coated nano TiO2 powder as a starting material. The carbon coating provided a high contact area between reactants, which resulted in the formation of TiC with a finer particle size (0.1–0.3 μm) and uniform shape after 4 h of reaction at 1550 °C. Sen et al. prepared TiC powder by carbothermal reduction of TiO2 in vacuum. They found that it was easier to prepare TiC in vacuum than at atmospheric pressure, and TiC easily formed in vacuum [37]. Lv et al. studied the process of preparing TiC by carbothermal reduction of TiO2 through a combination of thermodynamic analysis and experiments, and investigated the effects of temperature, TiO2/C molar ratio, and time on the phase transition and morphology evolution of the product [36]. Woo et al. prepared TiC particles by carbothermal reduction using a mixture of TiO2 and carbon resin in a flowing argon atmosphere at 1500 °C [42]. Partially reduced TiO2 particles were in an aggregated state during the initial stage of reduction, with particle sizes ranging from 500 to 1000 nm. After the reaction was complete, the aggregates separated into uniform and fine TiC particles with a particle size of 80 nm. Bae et al. obtained titanium carbide nanoparticles with a very high specific surface area by carbothermal reduction of TiO2 core sucrose shell precursor at 1500 °C for 2 h. The average grain size of the synthesized TiC was about 50 nm [43]. Sarker et al. prepared TiC nanoparticles by carbon thermal reduction of a mixture of precipitated rutile nanoparticles and carbon black. The optimal thermal reduction condition was maintaining an argon atmosphere for 1 h at a temperature of 1350 °C. The synthesized TiC nanoparticles were almost spherical with a particle size of less than 100 nm [44]. Wang et al. synthesized TiC powder by carbothermal reduction of TiO2 using rapid microwave heating. The carbothermal reduction was completed within 30 min at 1400 °C [45]. Other experimental results also indicated that, compared with traditional carbothermal reduction, the synthesis of nanoparticles of titanium carbide with microwave heating was completed at lower temperatures and in a shorter time, and achieved higher yields [46,47]. It has been shown that microwave heating can significantly reduce the activation energy of the carbothermal reduction reaction and promote the uniform distribution of elements, thus realizing the stable synthesis of high-entropy carbide powders [20].

3.2. Combustion Reaction

The direct reaction between titanium metal and carbon can be carried out through self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS). SHS is a technology for synthesizing many inorganic solids, based on highly exothermic reactions to maintain its own ability in the form of combustion reactions [48]. The basic reaction for the formation of TiC through SHS is described as Equation (7).
Ti + C = TiC
The heat of reaction of Equation (7) is 186 kJ/mol [49]. The key steps in forming TiC in the SHS process include solid-state diffusion followed by the melting of titanium, which gets in close contact with carbon particles, causing the dissolution of carbon and then precipitation of TiC particles. This process is usually characterized by a dissolution–precipitation mechanism [50,51,52,53]. The formation of TiC by the SHS process is illustrated in Figure 3. The reaction is ignited by heating a small region of the sample to a critical temperature, ignition temperature, as shown in Figure 3a. Once ignited, the energy released by the reaction is used to heat adjacent reactants and initiate further combustion, leading to a self-sustained reaction, as shown in Figure 3b–d. SHS is characterized by its high temperature (2000 to 4000 K), extremely high heating rates, and ability to often complete within seconds. As a result, the morphology of the TiC formed shows diverse forms, depending on the reaction conditions. To form more uniform, ultrafine or nanosized TiC, an inert diluent such as sodium chloride is added into the reaction mixture for controlling the SHS process, and protecting the TiC crystals initially formed. Sodium chloride does not form any intermediate phases during the combustion reaction.
Mullins et al. synthesized high-purity titanium carbide through a direct reaction between titanium and carbon during combustion synthesis. The high temperature generated by this exothermic reaction melted the titanium, which then flowed towards the solid carbon and reacted with it. The study noted the influence of different carbon precursor powders on the final morphology, particle size and microstructure of titanium carbide products [54]. Nersisyan et al. studied the combustion process of a titanium–carbon system using sodium chloride as an inert diluent. The results showed that sodium chloride reduced the combustion temperature and formed an effective protective shell around the primary carbide crystals to maintain an ultrafine structure throughout the combustion process, resulting in the formation of nano titanium carbide powder. The microstructure of TiC is shown in Figure 4 [55]. Niyom reported a method for synthesizing titanium carbide particles through the SHS of wood particles with TiO2 and Mg. The reaction was carried out in an SHS reactor under a static argon pressure of 0.5 MPa. XRD and SEM analysis showed that the precursor reacted completely to form TiC MgO as the product composite material. The synthesized composite material was leached with 0.1 M HCl acid solution to obtain TiC particles as the final product [56]. Camacho Rios et al. synthesized TiC nanoparticles using turbine layer carbon as a carbon source and titanium powder. Magnesium metal was used for ignition and the reaction was carried out in a CO2 atmosphere to prevent reaction with oxygen. The result showed that the average particle size of the synthesized TiC particles was about 25 nm. A byproduct, magnesium oxide, was removed by washing with HCl solution [57]. Akutagawa et al. applied ultrafast high-temperature sintering (UHS) to initiate SHS in a green compact of titanium and graphite powders, resulting in the formation of fine TiC grains [58].

3.3. Sol–Gel Method

The synthesis of TiC using the sol–gel method goes through a two-stage process: (1) creation of a homogeneous Ti-O-C precursor gel, and (2) a high-temperature reduction. This process allows for the synthesis of pure, nano TiC powders at relatively lower temperatures (typically 1100–1400 °C), compared to conventional carbothermal reduction reactions [59,60]. An outline of the mechanism of synthesizing TiC in a sol–gel process is illustrated in Figure 5. In the formation of the precursor gel, the process starts by creating a molecular-level mixture of titanium and carbon sources, as shown in Figure 5a. Titanium alkoxides, such as titanium butoxide or titanium isopropoxide, react with water to undergo hydrolysis, replacing alkoxy groups (-OR) with hydroxyl groups (-OH). Chelating agents (e.g., acetic acid) are added to stabilize the Ti alkoxide for preventing rapid, uncontrolled precipitation. A carbon source, such as an organic compound or a polymer, is introduced into the mixture. After hydrolysis and polymerization, a mixture of sol forms (Figure 5b). The mixture of sol is then heated to evaporate the solvent, causing the sol to turn into a gel (Figure 5c). This gel has a 3D network structure where TiO2 particles are tightly in contact with carbon. The gel is heated (500–600 °C) in an inert atmosphere to decompose the organic components, resulting in an intimate mixture of TiO2 nanoparticles and carbon (Figure 5d). In the carbothermal reduction stage, the TiO2/C mixture is heated to higher temperatures (1100–1400 °C) in vacuum or an inert atmosphere to start the reduction and to form TiC. Because of the high reactivity of the TiO2/C mixture resulting from the intimate contact between carbon and TiO2, nanocrystalline TiC can often form at a significantly lower reduction temperature of 1200–1300 °C.
Preiss et al. prepared an organic–inorganic gel as a precursor for the synthesis of titanium carbide. The sol–gel process was controlled by the additions of H2O2, acetic acid or ethyl acetoacetate and other complexing compounds. After pyrolysis at 600–800 °C, the gel was transformed into a close mixture of solid carbon and nano anatase. Pyrolyzed dry gel was used as the precursor for the synthesis of titanium carbide [61]. Jiang et al. hydrolyzed a mixture of Ti(O-n-Bu)4/furfuryl alcohol and produced a polymer solid. At 1150 °C, the polymer was pyrolyzed in argon gas to obtain metallic gray TiC [62]. Chen et al. used titanium butyrate (TBOT) and sucrose as raw materials to prepare the Ti-O-C precursor by the sol–gel method, and reduced the Ti-O-C precursor in a vacuum atmosphere at 1300 °C. The results showed that the synthesized TiC nano powder was close to standard lattice parameters and fine grains of ~37.4 nm [59]. Hosseinzadeh et al. synthesized TiC powder using titanium isopropoxide and sugar as raw materials in argon gas. The lattice parameters of the synthesized powder fired at 1300 °C were observed to be 0.4315 nm, with an average particle size of 38.1 nm [63]. Dutreez et al. developed a polymer precursor route, which involved the pyrolysis of organic/inorganic hybrid polymers containing alternating metal alkoxides and diacetylene units. After being heated at 1400 °C for 2 h in argon, TiC nanoparticles, with particle sizes between 20 and 50 nm, were obtained [64]. Zālīte et al. synthesized titanium carbide nano powder by carbothermal reduction of a precursor prepared by sol–gel process. There were two methods to prepare TiC precursor gel: titanium chloride, ethylene glycol and citric acid (gel A) and n-propanol, sucrose and acetic acid (gel B). The obtained dry gel was calcined in the flowing argon at different temperatures from 800 °C to 1400 °C, and the retention time was 0.5 h to 10 h. TiC particles with sizes ranging from 40 nm to 45 nm were obtained [65].

3.4. Gas Phase Reaction

TiC particles or films are synthesized in gas phase reactions through chemical vapor deposition (CVD) at high temperatures (typically 900–1200 °C), using precursors of titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) and hydrocarbons (CH4, C2H2, toluene, etc.) in the presence of the reducing gas of hydrogen. The reaction process of TiC formation starts with the reduction of stable TiCl4 with hydrogen to form reactive lower-valent titanium chlorides (e.g., TiCl3, TiCl2) in the gas phase. The reduced titanium species and methane react on the substrate surface, resulting in the deposition of TiC and the release of a byproduct of hydrogen chloride. A scheme of transport and reaction processes of the gas phase reaction in CVD is shown in Figure 6. The overall reaction is shown in Equation (8).
TiCl4 + CH4 + H2→TiC + 4HCl
The theoretical equilibrium conversion of TiCl4 to TiC is only about 13.3% at 1000 °C, and there is no sufficient supersaturation to form TiC powders. Therefore, products from the gas phase reaction of the TiCl4–CH4–H2 system are in the form of a TiC coating or thin film [66]. The parameters influencing the formation of a TiC coating include the reaction temperature, type of hydrocarbon precursor, concentration of hydrocarbon precursor in gas phase, etc. Lower temperature and lower hydrocarbon concentration favor the formation of a TiC film [67]. By controlling the precursor concentrations, homogeneous deposition is possible even in large industrial reactors [68]. CVD processes are used primarily to produce cutting tool coatings. The coatings produced are usually multilayered, using the best properties of each layer material [69,70]. Typical energy sources of CVD include the hot surface of the coated products and direct or alternating current plasma at radio frequency or microwave frequency [71]. A temperature higher than 900 °C is usually required to ensure a satisfactory reaction rate. However, the plasma CVD process allows for a significant reduction in temperature in the range of 300–700 °C. CVD is an advanced manufacturing technique for surface coatings, which represents a straightforward technique for depositing homogeneous thin films with good step coverage, even on complex shapes. The thickness of TiC films produced by CVD is in the order of several micrometers. By controlling the precursor concentrations, homogeneous deposition of TiC can be performed in large industrial reactors. A TiC thin film can be formed in the physical vapor deposition (PVD) process, which consists of various methods, such as, evaporation and sputtering. Compared with CVD, the PVD process is operated at lower temperatures and can be used for a wider range of substrates [72,73].
To form TiC fine powders, the concentration of reactants need to be increased, which allows the reaction to occur in the gas phase before reaching the substrate, leading to the homogeneous nucleation of TiC particles [74,75,76,77,78]. As an endothermic reaction, the equilibrium conversion of TiCl4–CH4–H2 to TiC increases with reaction temperature. When the temperature increases to above 2000 °C, the equilibrium conversion of TiCl4 to TiC is about 27.0%, which provides a high supersaturation to produce TiC powders. High-energy sources such as laser or plasma allow gas molecules to break into radicals, ions, and excited species, which react much faster than thermally activated molecules.
Noel et al. used hydrogen, titanium tetrachloride, and methane or acetylene as carbon sources to prepare titanium carbide coatings on tantalum substrates using laser chemical vapor deposition (LCVD). A coating with a near stoichiometric ratio was prepared using C2H2 at 1000 °C [79]. Lee et al. synthesized nano TiC particles by reacting liquid magnesium with a vaporized TiCl4 + CCl4 solution. By combining the Ti and C atoms produced through the chlorination reduction of magnesium, TiC particles of about 50 nm were prepared, and the byproduct of MgCl2 and excess Mg were removed using vacuum [80]. Grove et al. synthesized TiC nanoparticles by flowing methane through plasma generated by the arc discharge between two titanium electrodes [81]. Fronk et al. synthesized TiC fibers and tubes by heating TiCl4 and ethylene gas with a laser in the presence of hydrogen [77].

3.5. Mechanical Alloying

Mechanical milling-assisted alloying, or mechanical alloying (MA), is a powder processing technique used to synthesize TiC by a solid-state reaction between titanium (Ti) and carbon (C) through high-energy collisions at a low temperature. It offers a simpler alternative to high-temperature synthesis routes. The overall reaction of Ti and C in mechanical alloying is shown in Equation (9). Titanium, when milled in the presence of air, can gather substantial amounts of oxygen and nitrogen and influence phase changes, including the formation of new phases. An Argon atmosphere or a vacuum is required to protect the powder from oxidation and undesirable phase changes during milling.
Ti (s) + C (s) → TiC (s)
It is currently believed that two different process mechanisms exist for the formation of TiC in mechanical alloying. The first is a so called gradual reaction through elemental diffusion, which describes the formation of TiC through a series of events during the milling process [82,83,84]. Figure 7 is an illustration of the formation of TiC by mechanical alloying through a gradual reaction through elemental diffusion. In such a process, the powders repeatedly colliding cause the continuous reduction in particle sizes and the mixing of Ti and C atoms at the atomic level, leading to the formation of solid solutions or interstitial solid solutions. As milling continues, the atomic mixing and diffusion processes eventually reach a critical point, resulting in the formation of TiC.
The second process mechanism involves a self-sustained reaction during the milling process. The reaction of Ti and C generates significant heat, leading to an abrupt exothermic reaction in the later stage of milling. The initial stage of milling Ti and C powders provides an incubation duration for this reaction. The main effect of the initial milling on the powders was to reduce particle sizes of Ti and C. When a critical size of the particles is reached, a self-sustained SHS reaction is triggered and propagated. The driving force for the reaction is believed to be the large heat formation of TiC [85]. This type of abrupt formation of intermetallic compound during MA has been observed in a number of alloy systems, which all consist of intermetallic compounds with a large heat of formation. The formation process of TiC is also affected by the type of mill or milling intensity. A gradual reaction through elemental diffusion occurred during the MA of a mixture of Ti50 C50 when a planetary ball mill was used, while the formation of TiC during MA was dominated by a self-sustaining reaction mechanism using a SPEX 8000 mL mixer mill [83,86,87].
Ye et al. synthesized nano TiC powder through mechanical alloying. The phase and particle size changes were related to the grinding time. Under the given conditions, TiC was gradually formed after 10 h of grinding, and TiC with a particle size of 9 nm was completely formed after 27 h of grinding [88]. Hong et al. synthesized TiC nanoparticles using a high-speed planetary ball milling with the help of process control agents. After high-speed ball milling for 60 min, TiC with a particle size of 50 nm was obtained [89]. Razavi et al. ground and heated titanium and carbon, and produced nano TiC using the pyrolysis synthesis method. The results indicated that the grinding time for synthesizing TiC decreased as the temperature increased [90]. Yang produced TiC powder using a horizontal rotary ball mill within 60 min. A mechanically induced self-propagating reaction was observed during the milling. The synthesized TiC particles have a clear crystal structure, with an average particle size of about 1 μm and fewer impurities [91]. Li et al. synthesized TiC powder by the mechanical alloying of titanium and with de-oiled asphalt as the carbon source. The results showed that the synthesized TiC particles had an average size of about 1 μm [92]. Camacho Rios et al. prepared TiC of approximately 11 nm by mechanically alloyed metal titanium powder with two carbon sources (carbon nanotubes and stearic acid) using a SPEX 800 high-energy grinder [93]. Xing et al. synthesized nanostructured titanium carbide (TiC) from bitumen coke by the mechanical alloying process [84]. The SEM images in Figure 8 show the as-milled powders from titanium (Ti) and high sulphur (HS) coke after MA at 300 rpm with 40:1 ball-to-material ratios (BMR) at different times.

3.6. Summary of TiC Synthesis Processes

TiC can be synthesized by a number of methods, and the resulting TiC has different characteristics. Conventional carbothermal reduction produces TiC with particle sizes in the order of micrometers. TiC nanoparticles can be made by carbothermal reaction under a microwave condition. TiC nanoparticles have been synthesized by sol–gel, gas phase reactions, and mechanical alloying. TiC thin films are made by gas phase reactions. A summary of TiC synthesis processes is listed in Table 2.

4. Application of Titanium Carbide

TiC has a number of attractive technologically important properties including hardness, conductivity, chemical inertness, and high-temperature stability. Its applications cover cutting tools, coatings, semiconductors, TiC-reinforced metal matrix composites, energy storage, catalysts and catalyst supports, making it a key material in industrial and advanced technology fields.

4.1. Cutting Tools and Wear-Resistant Coatings

TiC has excellent properties that have ensured its demand in industrial coatings, mainly its combination of high hardness, high melting point, high wear resistance, and good thermal conductivity. It is used to create hard coatings on the surface of drill bits, milling cutters, and other tools to extend their service life. TiC is also found to be used to coat key parts such as valves, bearings, and nozzles in industrial equipment.
A TiC hard coating is commonly applied using chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or physical vapor deposition (PVD). By controlling the concentration of precursors, uniform deposition can be achieved in large industrial reactors [68]. A TiC coating enhances the surface properties of metals and alloys, providing high hardness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance [94]. It is estimated that about 80% of cutting tools currently use CVD and PVD to coat different coating materials, such as titanium carbide (TiC), titanium nitride (TiN), titanium carbonitride (TiCN), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), etc. [95]. In addition to CVD and PVD, sputtering deposition and laser cladding have been successfully used to apply a TiC coating on various substrates [96,97,98,99].

4.2. Semiconductors and Energy

TiC is a high-melting-point, chemically stable ceramic material, and it is used as a barrier by creating a robust interfacial layer for high-temperature composites and semiconductors to prevent unwanted atomic migration and reactions. TiC thin films are utilized in the semiconductor industry primarily as diffusion barriers and contact materials due to their low electrical resistivity, high thermal stability, and refractory nature. They are often deposited using techniques like reactive radio frequency (RF) sputtering, CVD, or pulsed laser deposition [100,101]. In energy storage and generation, TiC is widely used to develop high-performance, stable, and cost-effective electrodes for energy storage and is explored as electron transport layers (ETL) for interfacial engineering in next-generation photovoltaics [102,103,104,105,106]. TiC is also used as a starting material to synthesize MXenes from TiC-created Ti3AlC2 [107]. The uses of TiC in semiconductors and energy are summarized in Table 3.

4.3. TiC-Reinforced Metal Matrix Composites and TiC-Based Metal Ceramics

Metals and ceramics can be used independently for a wide range of applications due to their excellent properties. But they also exhibit some disadvantages, such as low oxidation resistance and the poor high-temperature properties of metals, and the inherent brittleness of ceramics. The purpose of developing metal–ceramic composites is to combine the advantages of the individual components of metals and ceramics. TiC-based composites overcome the inherent brittleness of pure TiC by combining its wear resistance with the ductility of metals or other ceramics. With the increasing demand for materials with high hardness, strength, toughness, and low density, ceramic-reinforced metal matrix composites have been recognized as one of the most promising materials in the automotive, aerospace, and tool industries [4,108,109]. TiC has been used as a reinforcing material for titanium-, aluminum-, copper-, and steel-based composites [110,111,112,113]. The combination of TiC and nickel-based metal ceramics achieves better accuracy, cutting speed, and smoothness of the final material [114]. This combination allows for higher hardness, lower density, and better elastic modulus. At the same time, TiC makes the composite materials a good thermal conductor [115]. The uses of titanium carbide in composite materials are summarized in Table 4.

4.4. Catalyst and Catalysts Supports

Titanium carbide is a good candidate for catalysts or catalytic support materials in various industrial and chemical processes due to its unique combination of physical and chemical properties, such as high corrosion resistance, thermal stability, and high conductivity. Titanium carbide supported catalysts are used for the hydrogenation of carbon dioxide and methanol synthesis, the electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide to methane, the oxygen reduction reaction, the water gas shift reaction, carbon monoxide oxidation, etc. [10,122,123,124]. The use of TiC as a carrier has been proven to effectively improve the stability of Pt-based electrocatalysts [11]. TiC has promising prospects as a catalyst for oxygen reduction/hydrogen evolution reaction or fuel cell support, and can achieve high current even under low Pt loading [125,126]. Research efforts are being undertaken for developing highly active TiC electrocatalysts by altering physical and chemical properties such as size, shape, surface defects, and chemical properties without affecting stability. TiC@C composite materials exhibit excellent capacitance performance and maintain good capacitance over long periods [104]. Nanosized titanium carbide powders were used as structural materials in next-generation fuel cell electrodes to maintain its electrochemical performance over multiple charge–discharge cycles without significant degradation [127]. In microbial fuel cells, anode surface modification using a core–shell nanocomposite, referred to as TiC@C–TiO2, was designed for improving power production [128]. Zheng et al. designed a composite Pt/TiC-C catalyst, which exhibited higher mass ORR activity and superior durability relative to the commercial Pt/C-JM catalyst [129]. Nano TiC was used as a carrier material for iridium (Ir) electrocatalysts in proton exchange membrane water electrolysis cells [130]. Iridium supported on titanium carbide (Ir/TiC) exhibited excellent OER performance [131].

5. Conclusions and Future Perspectives

In this review, processes for the synthesis of nanostructured titanium carbide were reviewed. Titanium carbide is traditionally synthesized through the reduction of titanium dioxide using carbon as a reduction agent at high temperatures. The particle sizes of as-synthesized titanium sub-oxides are generally in the micrometer range. More recently, nanostructured titanium carbide has been synthesized through optimizing thermal reduction processes, using new titanium-containing precursors, gas phase reactions or mechanical alloying processes. Under these reaction processes, reactants are more reactive and the reactions proceed at a much lower temperature or for a shorter period of time. The sol–gel process allows the formation of TiC to start at as low as 1000–1100 °C, and 1200–1300 °C is often sufficient for nanocrystalline TiC due to the high reactivity of the sol–gel precursors. Mechanical alloying processing is a versatile method to produce nanostructured TiC, offering a simpler alternative to high-temperature synthesis routes. Gas phase processing allows nanostructured TiC formed in particles or in films. Under more activated process conditions, the nanoparticles of TiC can be synthesized by a conventional carbothermal method. Due to the combined properties of hardness, conductivity, chemical inertness, and high-temperature stability, applications of TiC include cutting tools, coatings, semiconductors, TiC-reinforced metal matrix composites, energy storage, catalysts and catalyst supports. It is expected that further research will continue to develop processes to synthesize multi-dimensional nanostructured TiC and its high-performance composites with improved properties, yielding materials with higher hardness, tensile strength, wear resistance, and thermal conductivity, which are attractive for aerospace, automotive structural parts, and tooling. New processes, in combination with other advanced technologies (e.g., microwave heating, element doping, machine-learning-guided design, 3D printing, etc.), will enable improved control of the particle size and morphology of TiC, the formation of hybrid phases and alloys with tunable properties and the creation of complex architectures through additive manufacturing, making TiC a key material in industrial and advanced technology fields.

Author Contributions

X.W.: conceptualization, investigation, and writing. W.L.: writing, editing, funding acquisition, and proofreading. Y.H.: project administration, writing, editing, and proofreading. All authors reviewed the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Science and Technology Project of Sichuan Province (2024JDHJ0065).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

Authors Xiaoping Wu, Wenjing Li and Yijie Hu were employed by the Chengdu Advanced Metal Materials Industry Technology Research Institute Co., Ltd. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as potential conflicts of interest.

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Processes 14 01830 g001
Figure 1. The titanium–carbon phase diagram [27].
Figure 1. The titanium–carbon phase diagram [27].
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Figure 2. Gibbs free energy changes with temperature for Equation (1) at varying partial pressure of CO [35].
Figure 2. Gibbs free energy changes with temperature for Equation (1) at varying partial pressure of CO [35].
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Figure 3. Illustration of TiC formation in an SHS process. (a) Initiate reaction by heating a small region of the sample; (b) combustion reaction in reaction zone and energy released to heat adjacent reactant layers; (c) formation of TiC in initial zone and forward movement of reaction front; (d) finished product as TiC.
Figure 3. Illustration of TiC formation in an SHS process. (a) Initiate reaction by heating a small region of the sample; (b) combustion reaction in reaction zone and energy released to heat adjacent reactant layers; (c) formation of TiC in initial zone and forward movement of reaction front; (d) finished product as TiC.
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Figure 4. FESEM microstructure of TiC synthesis by SHS process.
Figure 4. FESEM microstructure of TiC synthesis by SHS process.
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Figure 5. Outline of mechanism of synthesis of TiC using sol–gel method. (a) Intitial solution of titanium alkoxide and carbon source, (b) a mixture of sol formed after hydrolysis and polymerization, (c) a gel formed after evaporating of solvent, (d) a mixture of TiO2 nanoparticles and carbon after heated in an inert atmosphere, (e) TiC formed after carbothermal reaction.
Figure 5. Outline of mechanism of synthesis of TiC using sol–gel method. (a) Intitial solution of titanium alkoxide and carbon source, (b) a mixture of sol formed after hydrolysis and polymerization, (c) a gel formed after evaporating of solvent, (d) a mixture of TiO2 nanoparticles and carbon after heated in an inert atmosphere, (e) TiC formed after carbothermal reaction.
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Figure 6. Scheme of transport and reaction processes in CVD.
Figure 6. Scheme of transport and reaction processes in CVD.
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Figure 7. Mechanisms for the formation of TiC in a Gradual Reaction through Elemental Diffusion.
Figure 7. Mechanisms for the formation of TiC in a Gradual Reaction through Elemental Diffusion.
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Figure 8. SEM images of the as-milled powders from titanium (Ti) and high sulphur (HS) coke after MA at 300 rpm with 40:1 ball-to-material ratios at different times: (A,B) 5 h, (C,D) 10 h, (E,F) 20 h, and (G,H) 40 h. The top and bottom images are presented at different magnifications of 10 K and 60 K, respectively [84].
Figure 8. SEM images of the as-milled powders from titanium (Ti) and high sulphur (HS) coke after MA at 300 rpm with 40:1 ball-to-material ratios at different times: (A,B) 5 h, (C,D) 10 h, (E,F) 20 h, and (G,H) 40 h. The top and bottom images are presented at different magnifications of 10 K and 60 K, respectively [84].
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Table 1. Physical and chemical properties of titanium carbide [30,31].
Table 1. Physical and chemical properties of titanium carbide [30,31].
Physical PropertiesValues
Melting Point3067 °C (does not decompose)
Specific Heat (Cp)33.8 J/mole·K
Heat of Formation, ΔH, at 298 K−184.6 (kJ/g-atom metal)
Thermal Conductivity (20 °C)21 W/m·K
Thermal Expansion (20 °C)7.4 × 10−6/°C
Electrical Resistivity50 ± 10 μΩ·cm
Vickers Hardness28–35 GPa
Modulus of Elasticity410–510 GPa
Shear Modulus186 GPa
Bulk Modulus240–390 GPa
Poisson’s Ratio0.191
Transverse Rupture Strength240–390 MPa
Coefficient of Friction0.25 (on tool steel, 50% humidity)
Oxidation ResistanceOxidizes slowly in air at 800 °C
Chemical ResistanceResistant to most acids. Attacked by HNO3, and HF.
Attacked by the halogens.
Can be heated in hydrogen to its melting point without decomposition.
Table 2. Summary of synthesis processes and characteristics of TiC.
Table 2. Summary of synthesis processes and characteristics of TiC.
MethodPrecursor/ProcessesProcess TemperatureProcess TimeScaleCharacteristics of TiC Synthesized
Carbothermal reductionTiO2 reduced by carbon at high temperature1700–2300 °CHoursIndustrialMicrometer-sized particles, or nanoparticles if synthesized by using microwave heating
Combustion reactionReaction between titanium metal and carbon through self-propagating high-temperature synthesis1727 to 3727 °COften within secondsLimitedPorous materials or nanoparticles
Sol–gel methodTitanium alkoxides and organic carbon sources as precursors, the formation of TiC via sol–gel process followed by carbothermal reduction800–1350 °CHoursScalableNanoparticles
Gas phase reactionTiCl4 and CH4 (or CH2CH2) react in a CVD reactor900–1200 °CDepending on the thicknessLaboratory to industrialThin films or nanoparticles
Mechanical alloyingMilling Ti and C to reduce the particles sizes and induce reaction to form TiCAmbientHoursScalableNano or micrometer sized particles
Table 3. Summary of uses of TiC in semiconductors and energy.
Table 3. Summary of uses of TiC in semiconductors and energy.
FunctionsTiC MaterialsExamplesRef.
Diffusion barriersSputtered, or in situ formed TiC layer
  • TiC as a diffusion barrier between Cu and Si, or Al and CoSi2
  • TiC serves as a barrier for diffusion of Ti, Fe and Cr across the interface
[100,101]
Electrode and Contact MaterialsTiC layer formed by CVD, carbothermal reaction of TiO2 on the surface
  • A high-performance anode with ultra-low diffusion barriers and high-energy densities for Li-ion and Na-ion batteries
  • Titanium carbide-decorated graphite felt as high-performance negative electrode
  • Electrodes of supercapacitors
[102,103,104]
Electron Transport Layers (ETL)Fabricated via electron beam evaporation, or radio frequency magnetron sputtering
  • Titanium carbide thin films and their application to silicon hetero junction solar cells
  • Oxygen-doped titanium carbide (TiCxOy) electron transport layer
[105,106]
TiC as starting material for MXene synthesisMXenes from TiC-created Ti3AlC2
  • MXenes for energy conversion and storage applications
[107]
Table 4. Summary of uses of TiC in composite materials.
Table 4. Summary of uses of TiC in composite materials.
MaterialsTiC in Composite MaterialsUse of TiC Composite MaterialsRef.
Metal Matrix Composites TiC particles are added to metals (aluminum, steel, titanium, copper)
  • TiC-reinforced aluminum for aerospace parts, lightweight composites
  • TiC-reinforced steel for cutting tools
  • TiC in titanium alloys for high-performance components
[6,110,111,112]
Cermets (Ceramic–Metal Composites)TiC is a major component in cermets. Numerous elements (Fe, Cr, Co, Ni, Mo, and (Ni-Mo)) can be used as a binder for TiC-based cermets.
  • Turning tools
  • Milling cutters
  • Wear-resistant coating
  • Enhancing the fracture toughness of TiC
  • Aircraft landing gear and wing flap tracks
[116,117,118,119]
Ceramic Matrix CompositesTiC are combined into ceramics (TiC–TiB2, TiC-SiC composites)
  • Improve fracture toughness
  • Increase electrical conductivity
  • Enhance thermal stability
[120,121]
Other reinforced TiC compositeTitanium carbide nano composites containing hybrid SiC nanowire and CNT
  • High toughness
  • Damage tolerance
[109]
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Wu, X.; Li, W.; Hu, Y. A Review of Processes for Synthesis of Nanostructured TiC. Processes 2026, 14, 1830. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14111830

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Wu X, Li W, Hu Y. A Review of Processes for Synthesis of Nanostructured TiC. Processes. 2026; 14(11):1830. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14111830

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Wu, Xiaoping, Wenjing Li, and Yijie Hu. 2026. "A Review of Processes for Synthesis of Nanostructured TiC" Processes 14, no. 11: 1830. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14111830

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Wu, X., Li, W., & Hu, Y. (2026). A Review of Processes for Synthesis of Nanostructured TiC. Processes, 14(11), 1830. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr14111830

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