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Article

Glycemic Response to White Kidney Beans as Part of a Rice Meal: A Thermal Processing Method

by
Fei Wang
1,2,3,
Huifang Shen
1,2,3,
Xinting Shen
1,2,3,
Yao Wang
1,2,3,
Rui Zhao
1,2,3,
Zhebin Li
1,2,3 and
Xinmiao Yao
1,2,3,*
1
Food Processing Research Institute, Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150086, China
2
Heilongjiang Province Key Laboratory of Food Processing, Harbin 150086, China
3
Heilongjiang Province Engineering Research Center of Whole Grain Nutritious Food, Harbin 150086, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Processes 2025, 13(9), 2977; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092977
Submission received: 19 August 2025 / Revised: 12 September 2025 / Accepted: 17 September 2025 / Published: 18 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Food Process Engineering)
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Abstract

In this study, the heat treatment of white kidney beans was optimized by a single-factor experiment and an orthogonal experiment. Taking in vitro digestibility as an index, the optimum technological parameters for heating white kidney beans were determined as follows: water addition of 225%, medium pressure heating for 30 min, and a temperature of 110 °C. The results of scanning electron microscopy showed that the layered structure in white kidney beans disappeared, and the original particle morphology was lost. The protein network was broken, forming an irregular agglomerate or flocculent structure, and the porous structure formed by heat-induced crosslinking effectively delayed the contact of amylase. Heat-treated white kidney beans were added to rice, and their nutritional components were determined, and the glycemic index was estimated in vitro to determine the best addition amount. The results of the in vitro digestion rate showed that the rice treated with 40% white kidney beans significantly reduced the glycemic index (eGI = 41.48), and the texture analysis showed that the viscoelasticity of rice could be improved by compounding 40% white kidney beans. It also effectively improves the taste of 100% white rice. This study can provide interdisciplinary solutions for the development of staple food for diabetes and provide a scientific basis for the development of staple food with a low glycemic index and the improvement of traditional diets.

1. Introduction

The white kidney bean, whose biological name is Phaseolus vulgaris, is rich in nutritional value, containing about 17.51% ~ 32.63% protein, 11.97% ~ 47.92% starch, lipids, dietary fiber, phytochemicals, and other components on a dry basis [1,2,3]. Traditionally, white kidney beans are mainly processed and eaten as minor grains, non-staple foods, or leisure snacks [4], and at the same time, white kidney beans also have certain medicinal value [5]. Studies have shown that the α-amylase inhibitor in white kidney beans can inhibit the digestion of starch, thus reducing the absorption of glucose and helping to lower the postprandial blood sugar level [6]. In addition, the white kidney bean extract showed a certain weight loss effect in clinical trials [7]. The white kidney bean is rich in α-amylase inhibitor (α-AI), which can control postprandial blood sugar increase by blocking starch hydrolysis to glucose and reducing sugar absorption [8,9,10]. It is a high-quality resource with great processing and utilization prospects. At present, the hypoglycemic functional products of white kidney beans mostly focus on the extract rather than the whole bean form, ignoring its food matrix effect, mainly because the active components in the extract are more concentrated and convenient for research and application. However, the whole bean form also has its unique value in nutrition and health, but the extraction and application of its active components still need further study. As a kind of high-GI food, white rice has a rapid blood sugar reaction after intake, which easily leads to a rapid increase in postprandial blood sugar level. At the same time, thermal processing will destroy the structure of the α-amylase inhibitor and inactivate it, thus increasing the starch digestion rate and postprandial blood sugar level. Therefore, it is of great significance to find strategies to reduce the impact of white rice on blood sugar [11]. At present, there are still some gaps in the research on the hypoglycemic effect of white rice and white kidney beans. Although studies have confirmed the regulating effect of white kidney beans on blood sugar, there are still few systematic studies on the synergistic effect of white rice and white kidney beans, especially the specific mechanism and effect differences under different proportions, which need further exploration. Therefore, it is of great research significance to compound white kidney beans with white rice to regulate blood sugar to some extent by delaying carbohydrate digestion and reducing postprandial blood sugar level so as to provide a dietary intervention strategy for diabetic patients or people with hyperglycemia.
Diabetes has become one of the major challenges in global public health. Epidemiological data show that in 2021, the prevalence of diabetes mellitus (DM) among people aged 20–79 was 10.5% (about 536.6 million people), and it is expected to increase to 12.2% (about 783.2 million people) by 2045 [12]. Among them, diabetes mellitus type 2 (T2DM) is characterized by insulin resistance, β-cell dysfunction, and persistent hyperglycemia, accounting for more than 90% of the total number of DM cases [13,14]. At present, the treatment system of T2DM includes structured health education, regular exercise intervention, medical nutrition therapy, dynamic blood sugar monitoring, and individualized drug therapy [15]. The American Diabetes Association emphasizes that medical nutrition therapy, as a basic intervention, is listed as the core measure for the prevention and treatment of T2DM [16]. As a key index to quantify the postprandial blood glucose response of food, the clinical application value has been supported by evidence: a low-glycemic index (GI) diet can significantly improve short-term blood glucose fluctuation and weight control [17]. Estimated glycemic index (eGI) is an index to evaluate the effect of food on blood sugar, which estimates the blood sugar response by measuring the digestion speed of starch in food. By measuring the eGI value, the effects of different processing methods and raw materials on the GI value of the final product can be evaluated so as to optimize the preparation process and achieve the goal of a low GI. It is worth noting that a one-month low-GI diet intervention for T2DM patients has been confirmed by randomized controlled trials to reduce the insulin resistance index (p < 0.05) [18,19]. Based on this, the development of low-GI food with a precise blood sugar regulation function has become the frontier direction in the field of nutrition intervention.
Therefore, in this study, Longyun 32 white kidney beans screened in the early stage were used as raw material, and the regulating effect of thermal processing on postprandial blood sugar was clarified by optimizing the whole ripening processing technology and combining it with the analysis of digestion rate in vitro, which provided theoretical support for the development of white kidney bean compound low-GI staple food products.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

Longyun 32 white kidney beans and white rice (provided by the Institute of Crop Resources of Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China); absolute ethyl alcohol (China Pharmaceutical Group Shanghai Chemical Reagent Company, Shanghai, China); trypsin (Sigma-Aldrich Company, St. Louis, MO, USA); sodium acetate buffer solution (China Pharmaceutical Group Shanghai Chemical Reagent Company, Shanghai, China); Reducing Sugar (RS) Content Assay Kit (Beijing Solarbio Science &Technology Co., Ltd, Beijing, China); artificial saliva (Beijing Solarbio Science &Technology Co., Ltd, Beijing, China); artificial gastric juice (Beijing Solarbio Science &Technology Co., Ltd, Beijing, China); all chemicals used were of analytical grade; all solutions were prepared using distilled water.

2.2. Single-Factor Experiment

In order to study the effects of water addition, temperature, and cooking time on the eGI value of white kidney beans and determine a series of parameter ranges, a single-factor experiment was conducted, and three processing parameters were set: water addition was 215%, 225%, 235%, 245%, and 255%; cooking time was 20 min, 25 min, 30 min, 35 min, and 40 min; and temperature was 90 °C, 100 °C, 110 °C, 120 °C, and 130 °C.

2.3. Orthogonal Test

According to the results of the single-factor experiment, the appropriate factor level was selected to optimize the orthogonal test process (Table 1).

2.4. SEM Analysis

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to observe the micromorphological changes in boiled white kidney beans. After the sample was sprayed in a vacuum, the powder was fixed on a metal sample table with conductive double-sided tape, and then the powder was observed by a scanning electron microscope, and the samples were observed and photographed with 500 and 1000 magnifications, respectively.

2.5. Detection of Nutritional Indexes of Boiled White Kidney Beans

Refer to GB 5009.3-2016 for moisture content determination; refer to GB 5009.4-2016 for ash determination; the content of protein is determined according to GB 5009.5-2016; starch content is determined according to GB 5009.9-2023; refer to GB 5009.6-2016 for the determination of fat content [20].

2.6. Preparation of Low-GI White Kidney Beans and Refined White Rice

The washed white kidney beans were added with 200% water, soaked for 10 h, and then added with 25% water. The white kidney beans with mass fractions of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% were added into the white rice and boiled at medium pressure for 30 min to prepare white kidney bean rice. The optimum addition ratio of white kidney beans was screened by measuring starch hydrolysis rate and eGI value.

2.7. Sensory Evaluation

Sensory evaluation was conducted according to the method of Arise, A.K 2022, with some modifications [21]. Thirty trained volunteers between the ages of 20 and 60 years were recruited. Among them, there were 15 men and 15 women, 5 men and 5 women aged 20–30, 5 men and 5 women aged 30–40, and 5 men and 5 women aged 50–60. Five samples of refined white rice with 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% white kidney beans were served and coded in a random order in a uniform tray and immediately presented individually to group members. Volunteers rinsed their mouths between samples using mineral water. The attributes tested were color, appearance, palatability, viscoelasticity, smoothness, and food acceptability. Each sensory descriptor was graded 1~9, according to the mean of the ratings given by the panelists; from low to high represents an increase in acceptability. Notably, we completed this sensory assessment within 20 min to ensure objectivity, and this procedure was conducted in an isolated room with good lighting and natural ventilation [22].

2.8. Analysis of in Vitro Digestion Characteristics

The sample was ground and sieved by an 80-mesh sieve, and the sample containing 500 mg of available carbohydrates was accurately weighed in a test tube. A total of 1.5 mL of 80% ethanol was added to dissolve the sample, and the sample was mixed by vortex. Then, distilled water was added in the mass ratio of sample to distilled water of 1: 1, and then 1 mL of artificial saliva was added. After 15–20 s, 5 mL of artificial gastric juice was added, and after 30 min of oscillating water bath at 37 °C, it was neutralized with 5 mL of 0.02 mol/L NaOH. Then, 25 mL of 0.2 mol/L sodium acetate buffer solution was added, and 5 mL of artificial intestinal juice containing trypsin (6 μg/g) was added, and it continued to incubate in a water bath at 37 °C. A 4 mL boiling water bath was taken to inactivate the enzyme at 0, 10, 30, 60, 90, 120, and 180 min, respectively. The glucose content was determined by the Reducing Sugar (RS) Content Assay Kit. The area of each sample under the starch hydrolysis curve (AUC sample and AUC reference) during 0 ~ 180 min, the starch hydrolysis index (HI), and the estimated glycemic index (eGI) of the sample were calculated according to the following formulae in Equation (1) and Equation (2), respectively:
HI (%) = (AUC sample / AUC reference) × 100
eGI = 8.198 + (0.862 × HI)
HI is the hydrolysis index of the boiled white kidney beans (%).
AUC sample is the area under the starch hydrolysis curve for the sample from 0 to 180 min.
AUC reference is the area under the starch hydrolysis curve for the reference food (white bread) from 0 to 180 min.
eGI is the estimated glycemic index.

2.9. Texture Analysis

The sample was placed on the bearing platform of the texture analyzer, and the sample was tested by the probe on the testing arm. Ten (10) grains of white kidney beans and rice were tested each time, the operation was repeated three times, and the close average of the three groups of data was taken. Before the test, the texture meter was calibrated to ensure the accuracy of its measurement results, including force calibration, displacement calibration, and height calibration. Standard weights or samples with known properties for calibration were used, and contact pressure and return distance for height calibration were set. Working conditions: the probe type was P/36R; before the test, the probe descended at a speed of 1 mm/s; the speed of the test was 1 mm/s. After the test, the pickup speed of the probe was 1 mm/s; the pressure was 30%; the interval between the second test was 5 s.

2.10. Chromaticity Analysis

A Japanese NW-12 electrochromic colorimeter was used for the determination. The colorimeter was compared and corrected with the standard sample before use. Before operation, it was preheated for 20 min to ensure the data stability. The chromaticity of the samples was measured, and the samples with different treatments were laid flat in a transparent glass sample tank with a cover. After compaction, the chromaticity values L *, a *, and b * were measured by a color difference meter. L * indicates brightness (0 is black and 100 is white), a * indicates red and green (positive values are red and negative values are green), and b * indicates yellow and blue (positive values are yellow and negative values are blue). Each sample was measured three times and averaged.

2.11. Statistical Analysis

All experiments were carried out at least in triplicate, and the data were statistically analyzed and expressed as mean ± SD. Statistical analyses were performed using GraphPad Prism version 8.0 (GraphPad Software, Inc., San Diego, CA, USA) and IBM SPSS Statistics version 24.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA).

3. Results

3.1. Single-Factor and Orthogonal Test Analysis

In the single-factor and orthogonal experiments for the optimization of the white kidney bean-cooking process, the ranges of water addition (A), temperature (B), and time (C) were screened out by single-factor experiments (Figure 1), and then the influence of time (C) on the hydrolysis rate was investigated by orthogonal experiments (Table 2). It was found that time (C) had the greatest influence on the hydrolysis rate, with a range of 5.33, and the variance analysis showed that its F value was 9.40 and p value was 0.001. Temperature (B) and water addition (A) also have significant effects on the hydrolysis rate, with F values of 7.15 and 8.57 and p values of 0.003 and 0.001, respectively (Table 3). The mean square of the error term is small, which shows that the experimental design is relatively stable. The best process combination is A2B2C2 (225% water addition, 110 °C, 30 min); under this condition, the hydrolysis index of starch was 51.66%.

3.2. Cell Micromorphology

According to the observation of the scanning electron microscope (Figure 2), the microstructure of the starch granules of white kidney beans changed significantly after steaming: the starch granules with smooth surfaces and complete structures became rough, grooves appeared, and the polarized cross structure became blurred or incomplete, which indicated that the heat treatment destroyed the crystallization area and amorphous region of the starch granules. This destruction leads to the decrease in crystallinity of starch, the increase in amylose content, and the promotion of starch gelation, thus significantly improving the enzymatic hydrolysis ability (easy to digest and absorb). At the same time, protein denatured and aggregated during heat treatment, forming an amyloid fiber structure, which further affected the gel properties. These structural changes have significantly improved the digestion characteristics of white kidney beans, but the cell wall and protein barrier may still delay digestion to some extent. In addition, the hardness and chewiness of white kidney beans are reduced, which makes their texture closer to that of rice and is suitable for staple food compounding.

3.3. Determination of Nutritional Components

During the cooking process, the nutritional components of white kidney beans were changed significantly, and the specific results are shown in Table 4. The experimental results show that the protein content of white kidney beans increased slightly after cooking (from 22.0% to 24.3%), but this change may be related to the calculation method of dry matter basis rather than the actual content increase [23]. The fat content also increased (from 1.0% to 1.8%); it was likely attributed to the concentration effect due to significant moisture loss and the potential improvement in fat extraction efficiency resulting from the disruption of cellular structures during heating [24]. After cooking, the moisture content increased significantly (from 3.07% to 4.15%), while the starch content decreased significantly (from 62.0% to 49.0%), which was caused by high-temperature gelatinization and partial starch dissolution [25]. The ash content increased slightly (from 3.6% to 4.2%), which may be due to the high temperature promoting mineral concentration.

3.4. Determination of the Physical and Chemical Properties of Refined Rice with Low-GI White Kidney Beans

The addition of boiled white kidney beans to polished white rice significantly affected the texture characteristics of rice. With the increase in the proportion of white kidney beans, the hardness, chewiness, and viscosity of rice showed different degrees of changes. As shown in Table 5, when the addition of white kidney beans increased from 0% to 50%, the hardness increased significantly from 837.4 to 8588.7, indicating that the protein component of white kidney beans enhanced the structural strength of rice. At the same time, the chewiness also increased from 69.9 to 134.79, which may be related to the interaction between protein and starch in white kidney beans, thus improving the chewiness of rice [26]. However, resilience and viscosity showed a downward trend, from 2.17 to 0.57 and from 1080.96 to 504.74, respectively, which may be due to the protein in white kidney beans interfering with the network structure of starch, leading to the recovery of elasticity and the weakening of internal binding force [27]. These changes reflect the complex influence of white kidney beans on rice texture, which provides a theoretical basis and technical support for developing new healthy rice products.
The addition of white kidney beans has a significant effect on the chromaticity of rice, which is mainly reflected in the changes in L *, a *, and b * values. With the increase in the amount of white kidney beans, the L * value gradually decreased, indicating that the brightness of rice decreased; at the same time, the values of a * and b * increased, indicating that the red and yellow tones are enhanced. This change may be related to the oxidative polymerization of polyphenols in white kidney beans during cooking to produce dark substances [28] and may also be affected by the Maillard reaction and carotenoid release [29]. In addition, the addition of white kidney bean powder may also affect the sensory acceptance of rice, such as color, flavor, and texture.
The application of boiled white kidney beans in refined white rice has a significant impact on sensory evaluation. With the increase in the proportion of white kidney beans, the viscosity and taste score of rice decreased, while the flavor and acceptance score increased [30]. In addition, the softness, hardness, and overall acceptability of rice showed some changes under different addition ratios but generally maintained a high acceptance. Steamed white kidney beans can substitute up to 50% of refined rice without significantly altering sensory attributes (p > 0.05). Color stability, controlled stickiness reduction, and maintained softness underscore technical viability. The 40% substitution level maximizes consumer acceptance, positioning this blend as a nutritionally enhanced staple. Future studies should explore larger panels, instrumental texture correlation, and glycemic response validation.
The effects of different addition ratios of boiled white kidney beans on the estimated glycemic index (eGI) of polished white rice are shown in Table 5. From the results, there is a significant negative correlation between the addition ratio of white kidney beans and eGI (R2 > 0.95). When the addition ratio of boiled white kidney beans was 40%, the eGI dropped to 41.48, which belongs to the category of low-GI food [31], but 40% to 50% slightly raises the eGI. Particle size of 21–23 μm is evenly embedded in the rice starch matrix, forming a physical barrier, while 50% of excess starch particles destroy the continuity and increase the gelatinization contact surface. At the same time, the relative crystallinity of the 40% mixture was higher than 50%, and the high crystallinity delays the starch digestion [32], thus affecting its digestion rate and leading to a small increase in eGI value.

4. Discussion

The present study optimized the steaming parameters for white kidney beans, demonstrating that steaming time exerted the most significant influence on the hydrolysis rate. Through systematic experimental design and statistical analysis, the optimal process conditions were identified as 30 min of steaming at 110 °C with 225% water addition. Under these conditions, the hydrolysate index (HI) reached 52.66%, indicating markedly reduced in vitro starch digestibility—a key characteristic of low-glycemic index (GI) foods. The optimized process promoted full starch gelatinization, yielding a desirable texture and effectively eliminating the beany flavor, which consequently received the highest sensory evaluation scores. Moreover, this method resulted in shorter cooking times, reduced energy consumption, and improved efficiency, highlighting its potential for scalable industrial production. Microstructural observations revealed that cooking induced substantial changes, including starch granule expansion and disruption of the protein network, which underpinned the altered textural properties. Nutritional analysis further indicated significant changes in protein, fat, moisture, starch, and ash content, providing theoretical insight into the nutritional modifications occurring during thermal processing. Notably, despite thermal treatment, α-amylase inhibitor (α-AI) activity was preserved to a considerable extent. We hypothesize that the cooking process does not fully denature α-AI but rather facilitates the release of the inhibitor from the softened cell wall and protein matrix, thereby enhancing its accessibility in the digestive environment. Concurrently, starch gelatinization and interactions with other components (e.g., dietary fiber and protein) formed a physical barrier that impeded enzyme access to starch granules. The combined effects of sustained α-AI activity and enhanced physical barriers likely contributed to delayed starch digestion and the resulting low estimated GI (eGI). In texture analysis, the incorporation of white kidney beans into polished rice modulated the texture, increasing hardness and chewiness, and altering both color and sensory attributes. These findings affirm the feasibility of developing rice products with functional properties.

5. Conclusions

This study optimized the thermal processing technology of white kidney beans and improved their nutritional function, sensory evaluation, and processing efficiency. The optimized steaming protocol significantly reduced starch digestibility and preserved α-AI activity, underscoring the potential of white kidney beans in the development of low-GI staple foods. The structural and nutrient changes characterized in this study provide a scientific basis for future food processing applications. Furthermore, the successful integration of white kidney beans into rice products demonstrates practical pathways for enhancing the nutritional profile of conventional staples, opening avenues for dietary management in populations with specific health needs, such as those with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). By integrating food science, nutrition, sensory analysis, and process engineering, this study offers a multidisciplinary foundation for the utilization of white kidney beans in the food industry, supporting the development of healthier and sensorially acceptable food options.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.W. and X.Y.; data curation, H.S. and X.S.; formal analysis, Y.W.; funding acquisition, X.Y.; investigation, Z.L.; methodology, R.Z. and F.W.; software, F.W. and X.S.; writing—review and editing, F.W. and X.Y.; data curation, Y.W.; project administration, F.W. and X.Y.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Heilongjiang Agricultural Science and Technology Innovation Leapfrog Project, the Agricultural Science and Technology Basic Innovation Project, the Outstanding Youth Project (CX25JC20), and the Project of the Laboratory of Advanced Agricultural Sciences, Heilongjiang Province (ZY04JD05-012).

Data Availability Statement

The original data on which this article is based is available, which the author will provide upon request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Processes 13 02977 g001
Figure 1. Effects of water addition on (A1) hydrolysis index (A2) estimated glycemic index of cooked white kidney bean starch; Effects of temperature on (B1) hydrolysis index (B2) estimated glycemic index of cooked white kidney bean starch; Effects of time on (C1) hydrolysis index (C2) estimated glycemic index of cooked white kidney bean starch. The experimental parameters were set as follows: water addition 215%, soaking time 8 h, temperature 100 °C, and time 25 min. The data are expressed as mean standard deviation (n = 3).
Figure 1. Effects of water addition on (A1) hydrolysis index (A2) estimated glycemic index of cooked white kidney bean starch; Effects of temperature on (B1) hydrolysis index (B2) estimated glycemic index of cooked white kidney bean starch; Effects of time on (C1) hydrolysis index (C2) estimated glycemic index of cooked white kidney bean starch. The experimental parameters were set as follows: water addition 215%, soaking time 8 h, temperature 100 °C, and time 25 min. The data are expressed as mean standard deviation (n = 3).
Processes 13 02977 g001
Processes 13 02977 g002
Figure 2. Scanning electron microscope images of white kidney beans before (a) and after (b) heat treatment. The image in the red box is magnified by 1000 times.
Figure 2. Scanning electron microscope images of white kidney beans before (a) and after (b) heat treatment. The image in the red box is magnified by 1000 times.
Processes 13 02977 g002
Table 1. Factors and levels of orthogonal experiments.
Table 1. Factors and levels of orthogonal experiments.
LevelFactor
Water Addition A (%)Temperature B (°C)Time C (min)
121510025
222511030
323512035
Table 2. Mean value and intuitive analysis of the interaction between the starch hydrolysis index of cooked white kidney beans and water addition, temperature, and time.
Table 2. Mean value and intuitive analysis of the interaction between the starch hydrolysis index of cooked white kidney beans and water addition, temperature, and time.
A (%)B (°C)C (min)HI (%)
12151002553.46
22151103062.73
32151203560.01
42251003058.36
52251103555.98
62251202553.58
72351003561.73
82351102558.67
92351203054.62
Average 157.454.18357.237
Average 258.6458.4659.57
Average 355.00758.40354.24
Range3.6334.2775.33
Table 3. Variance analysis of the interaction between starch hydrolysis rate of cooked white kidney beans and water addition, temperature, and time.
Table 3. Variance analysis of the interaction between starch hydrolysis rate of cooked white kidney beans and water addition, temperature, and time.
SSdfMSFP
Water addition (A)51.3924225.69628.570.001
Temperature (B)42.9000221.45007.150.003
Time (C)56.2674228.13379.400.001
Error (E)13.763826.8819--
Total164.32368---
Table 4. Changes in nutritional components of white kidney beans before and after heat treatment.
Table 4. Changes in nutritional components of white kidney beans before and after heat treatment.
Protein (%)Fat (%)Moisture (%)Ash (%)Starch (%)
Before22.01.03.073.662.0
After24.31.84.154.249.0
Table 5. Effects of different addition ratios of heat-treated white kidney beans on the texture, color, sensory evaluation, and estimated blood sugar production index of refined white rice.
Table 5. Effects of different addition ratios of heat-treated white kidney beans on the texture, color, sensory evaluation, and estimated blood sugar production index of refined white rice.
Sample (%)TextureChromaticitySensory ScoreIn Vitro Digestion Rate
HardnessResilienceViscosityChewinessL *a *b *ColorStickinessSoftnessOverall
Liking		HI (%)eGI
0%837.4 ± 37.01 f2.17 ±0.01 a1080.96 ± 6.67 a69.9 ± 0.51 f70.52 ± 0.24 a4.05 ± 0.12 f14.91 ± 0.25 f6.19 ± 0.03 a6.99 ± 0.18 a7.09 ± 1.33 a6.73 ± 0.69 a99.40 93.88
10%4728.02 ± 25.32 e2.15 ± 0.03 ab1001.28 ± 14.36 b73.65 ±0.87 e68.04 ± 0.11 b4.26 ± 0.38 e15.16 ± 0.66 de6.22 ± 0.02 a6.87 ± 0.09 a6.98 ± 0.96 a6.58 ± 0.44 a91.06 86.69
20%5899.26 ± 17.64 d1.97 ± 0.02 c895.72 ± 23.07 c99.78 ±0.53 d67.18 ± 0.03 c4.53 ± 0.45 d15.79 ± 0.03 d6.13 ± 0.14 a6.89 ± 0.02 a6.77 ± 1.19 a6.69 ± 0.51 a64.38 63.69
30%6713.08 ± 45.83 c1.53 ± 0.09 d664.53 ± 18.65 d103.59 ±0.66 cd67.06 ± 0.27 cd4.69 ± 0.16 c16.38 ± 0.06 c6.20 ± 0.01 a6.72 ± 0.03 a6.68 ± 0.83 a6.73 ± 0.86 a61.22 60.97
40%7003.65 ± 12.92 b1.07 ± 0.06 e570.17 ± 15.32 e111.26 ±0.78 b66.51 ± 0.65 cd4.97 ± 0.35 ab16.98 ± 0.25 ab6.11 ± 0.05 a6.78 ± 0.07 a6.61 ± 0.77 a6.98 ± 1.11 a38.61 41.48
50%8588.7 ± 47.91 a0.57 ± 0.01 f504.74 ± 5.86 f134.79 ± 0.91 a66.02 ± 0.14 e5.03 ± 0.11 a17.02 ± 0.44 a6.09 ± 0.08 a6.54 ± 0.05 a6.52 ± 1.47 a6.72 ± 0.73 a57.21 57.51
Note: Data are presented as mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM), n = 6 per group. The superscripts in different lowercase letters in the same column indicate significant differences between numerical values (p < 0.05). eGI: estimated glycemic index. HI: hydrolysis index, representing the percentage of hydrolyzed starch relative to a reference food (e.g., white bread). L *: lightness (L * value ranges from 0 [black] to 100 [white]). a *: redness/greenness (positive values indicate redness, negative values indicate greenness). b *: yellowness/blueness (positive values indicate yellowness, negative values indicate blueness).
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MDPI and ACS Style

Wang, F.; Shen, H.; Shen, X.; Wang, Y.; Zhao, R.; Li, Z.; Yao, X. Glycemic Response to White Kidney Beans as Part of a Rice Meal: A Thermal Processing Method. Processes 2025, 13, 2977. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092977

AMA Style

Wang F, Shen H, Shen X, Wang Y, Zhao R, Li Z, Yao X. Glycemic Response to White Kidney Beans as Part of a Rice Meal: A Thermal Processing Method. Processes. 2025; 13(9):2977. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092977

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wang, Fei, Huifang Shen, Xinting Shen, Yao Wang, Rui Zhao, Zhebin Li, and Xinmiao Yao. 2025. "Glycemic Response to White Kidney Beans as Part of a Rice Meal: A Thermal Processing Method" Processes 13, no. 9: 2977. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092977

APA Style

Wang, F., Shen, H., Shen, X., Wang, Y., Zhao, R., Li, Z., & Yao, X. (2025). Glycemic Response to White Kidney Beans as Part of a Rice Meal: A Thermal Processing Method. Processes, 13(9), 2977. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092977

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