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Review

Polymer Nanocomposites with Optimized Nanoparticle Dispersion and Enhanced Functionalities for Industrial Applications

by
Md Mahbubur Rahman
1,*,
Karib Hassan Khan
1,
Md Mahadi Hassan Parvez
1,
Nelson Irizarry
2 and
Md Nizam Uddin
2,*
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, Khulna 9203, Bangladesh
2
James C. Morriss Division of Engineering, Texas A & M University-Texarkana, 7101 University Ave., Texarkana, TX 75503, USA
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Processes 2025, 13(4), 994; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13040994
Submission received: 20 February 2025 / Revised: 18 March 2025 / Accepted: 24 March 2025 / Published: 26 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Characterization of Advanced Polymer Nanocomposites)
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Abstract

:
Polymer nanocomposites (PNCs) are a versatile class of materials known for their enhanced mechanical, thermal, electrical, and barrier properties, with the latter referring to resistance against the permeation of gases and liquids. Achieving optimal nanoparticle dispersion within the polymer matrix is essential to fully realizing these advantages. This study investigates strategies for improving nanoparticle dispersion and examines the impact of controlled dispersion on the resulting nanocomposite properties. Various methods, including in situ polymerization, twin screw extrusion, sol–gel processes, nanoparticle surface modification, solution casting, and advanced compounding techniques such as additive manufacturing and self-healing composites were explored to enhance dispersion and improve the compatibility between nanoparticles and polymers. The synergy between improved dispersion and enhanced functionalities—such as increased mechanical strength, thermal stability, conductivity, and chemical resistance—makes these nanocomposites highly valuable for industrial applications in sectors such as the automotive, aerospace, electronics, pharmaceuticals, and packaging industries. The key recommendations based on our findings highlight how customized nanocomposites can address specific industrial challenges, fostering innovation in materials science and engineering.

1. Introduction

Nanocomposites are a class of materials engineered by mixing at least two constituent materials, with one of them being measured in nanometers and each having its own significant physical or chemical properties, to achieve a new material with exceptional properties. These improved qualities include increased stiffness and strength, a low coefficient of expansion, fatigue resistance, ease of producing complex shapes, easy repair of damaged structures, and corrosion resistance [1]. A nanocomposite is also known as a multiphase solid material with nanoparticles or structures with nanoscale repeat intervals between the phases. Nanoparticles are defined as particles with diameters ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers. Due to their size, these particles exhibit unique atomic-level properties, making them advantageous across various fields [2,3]. There are various types of nanoparticles, including metal nanoparticles, non-metal ceramic nanoparticles, semiconductor nanoparticles, and the more commonly recognized carbon nanoparticles. Due to their small size and high surface-to-volume ratio, the chemical and physical properties exhibited by nanoparticles differ considerably from similar bulk materials [4]. When the constituent size of a material is reduced below a certain level, known as the “critical size,” its properties are changed [5]. The goal of employing nanocomposites is to design new materials with unprecedented flexibility and enhanced physical properties by creating nanometer-scale building blocks. This term broadly applies to porous media, colloids, gels, and copolymers, but it most commonly refers to a solid mixture consisting of a bulk matrix and one or more nano dimensional phases with different properties due to their structural and chemical differences. Nanocomposites exhibit significant differences in mechanical, electrical, thermal, optical, electrochemical, and catalytic properties compared to the constituent materials [6].
One of the especially exciting areas of research since the turn of the century has been nanotechnology, yielding numerous breakthroughs. Nanotechnology is an interdisciplinary and rapidly expanding field that involves particles with extremely small dimensions known as nanomaterials [7]. Its applications span physics, chemistry, biology, material science, and engineering. Due to their small size and high surface-area-to-volume ratio, nanomaterials have been instrumental in advancing fields such as the automotive and aerospace industries, food and water purification, medical applications, and energy production, storage, and equipment [8]. Nanocomposites are distinguished by their exceptional performance and distinctive design potential. The larger component, or the matrix, is reinforced by incorporating nanomaterials such as nano fillers. These anisotropic and non-homogeneous characteristics make nanocomposites superior to micro and monolithic composites [9]. Nanocomposites significantly enhance mechanical qualities, thermal stability, flame resistance, permeability reduction, surface appearance, electrical conductivity, chemical resistance, and optical clarity [8]. They are created by combining inorganic nanoclusters, fullerenes, clays, metals, oxides, or semiconductors with various organic polymers, organometallic compounds, biological molecules, enzymes, and sol–gel-derived polymers. The small size, large surface area, and interfacial interactions between phases allow these materials to combine multiple elements to offer unique features. Due to their remarkable potential, nanocomposites have been successfully used to improve the performance of medications, biomaterials, catalysts, and high-value materials [10].
Nanocomposite materials, distinguished by their polymeric or non-polymeric composition, have significantly advanced material science by offering improved mechanical, thermal, electrical, and barrier properties compared to conventional composites. Non-polymer nanocomposites—or inorganic nanocomposites—include metal-based, ceramic-based, and ceramic–ceramic types, each tailored for applications such as electronics, medical implants, and structural materials due to their unique strength, magnetic, and optical properties [11,12]. Polymer nanocomposites (PNCs) integrate polymers with nanoparticles, leveraging the lightweight, flexible nature of polymers alongside the mechanical and conductive advantages of nanoparticles, which are dispersed as spheroids, fibers, or platelets, with at least one dimension between 1 and 50 nm. Despite challenges in achieving uniform dispersion, innovations like in situ polymerization and sol–gel processes have improved PNCs’ structure and phase compatibility, resulting in tailored materials with applications across technology and medicine [13]. The high surface area of the nanoparticles increases both the load transfer and the interfacial interactions; hence, the nanocomposites have become a transformative class of materials in fields ranging from electronics to biomedicine.
Recent innovations in PNC technology have focused on optimizing the dispersion of nanoparticles within the matrix, enhancing the compatibility between different phases, and developing new synthesis and dispersion methods to achieve precise control over the material and structure, along with their properties and functionalities. The purpose of this paper is to provide an in-depth overview of the current situation regarding recent advancements and innovations in PNC technology, elaborating the basic reinforcement of different PNCs through additive incorporation and polymer matrix ratio mixing, as well as their impact on material properties and functionalities. This covers an exploration of their unique properties and advanced synthesis and dispersion methods, with an emphasis on the latest developments and trends. This paper provides a comprehensive view of PNCs’ applications in the aerospace, automotive, electronics, biomedicine, environmental, and energy fields to emphasize the high impact and potential of advanced PNCs.

2. Advancements in Dispersion Techniques for PNCs

The properties of polymer nanocomposites may be enhanced by including various nanoscale additions or components, contingent upon the dispersion techniques used. The mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties of a material may be significantly influenced by the additive ratio used in its production. Polymer nanocomposites often include fillers, cross-linkers, carbon nanotubes, nanosilica, and rare earth oxides, as well as other additives and materials. Phenolic-based nanocomposites may exhibit improved mechanical and tribological properties with the incorporation of nanosilica and rare earth oxides [14]. Nanosilica enhances compressive and hardness strength, despite cerium oxide and yttrium oxide significantly increasing impact and shear strength [14]. Incorporating carbon nanotubes into poly lactic acid (PLA) nanocomposites enhances the electrical conductivity of the materials [15]. The fillers and cross-linkers in fuel cell polymer electrolyte membranes affect the mechanical strength and proton conductivity of the materials, among other properties [16].
Dispersion techniques may be changed by modifying the ratios of additives or materials. The optimal ratios for phenolic-based nanocomposites to achieve balanced mechanical and tribological properties are 2% cerium oxide, 2.5% yttrium oxide, and 3% nanosilica [14]. The electrical conductivity of PLA nanocomposites is improved when the ratio of carbon nanotubes to nano-Fe3O4 is 50:50 [15]. Developing the desired properties may be achieved by determining the appropriate proportions. This section provide the current information on existing dispersion techniques, followed by an illustration of different interactions between the polymer matrix and additives, as well as recent advancements in dispersion techniques.

2.1. Existing Dispersion Techniques

To improve nanoparticle dispersion in nanocomposite materials, many characterization techniques have been developed since high surface energies and inter-particle forces can be a major deterrent. The details of the main approaches are provided below, each with their distinct advantages and considerations based on matrix compatibility, nanoparticle type, and application requirements.

2.1.1. Physical Dispersion Techniques

There are different types of physical dispersion techniques used for PNCs, as shown in Figure 1. These mainly rely on mechanical forces to break down nanoparticle agglomerates.
Ultrasonication: This method uses high-frequency sound waves to create cavitation bubbles in liquid dispersions. When these bubbles collapse, they create intense local pressure and shear forces that break apart nanoparticle clusters. Ultrasonication is especially effective for the dispersion of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and it has been reported that it can even improve uniformity and distribution within a polymer matrix, such as epoxy. This process increases the composite’s mechanical and thermal properties because the load transfer between the polymer and nanoparticles increases. Excessive ultrasonication can cause shortenings and surface defects in carbon nanotubes due to cavitation, potentially diminishing the mechanical and electrical properties of nanocomposites [17].
Bead milling: In bead milling, nanoparticle aggregates are ground between small beads in a rotating chamber. This process generates high shear stress and collisions between particles, which favor fine dispersions. It is an extremely common method for the dispersion of nanoparticles in applications where contamination is a concern, such as in electronic and medical nanocomposites. Bead milling is suitable for producing stable dispersions at larger scales and is most effective for materials with high viscosity. Advanced bead milling systems use small beads (7–50 µm) and controlled agitation speeds to reduce particle breakage, which can be detrimental to the properties of certain nanocomposites. Bead milling effectively disperses nanoparticles within polymer matrices, enhancing mechanical properties and thermal stability. However, challenges such as limited grinding fineness, potential over-milling, and difficulties in selecting appropriate bead size and material can affect the quality of the dispersion [18].
Three-roll milling: This process is a shear-intensive technique which is especially effective for the dispersion of nanoparticles in highly viscous matrices, such as thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers. The process works by having a mixture pass between three rollers, with shear that disperses nanoparticles uniformly. It is a common technique for graphene and clay composites, where the uniform dispersion of plate-like particles is necessary to maximize strength and thermal properties. Three-roll milling effectively disperses nanoparticles within polymer matrices, achieving uniform distribution and enhanced mechanical properties. However, excessive shear forces during the process can shorten nanoparticle lengths, potentially diminishing electrical conductivity [19].
Twin-screw extrusion: This method is prominent due to its effectiveness in dispersing nanoparticles within polymers. It operates by conveying polymer and nanoparticle mixtures through intermeshing screws, applying both shear and thermal energy to achieve uniform dispersion. This technique is advantageous for its continuous processing capability and compatibility with industrial-scale production. Studies have demonstrated that the twin-screw extrusion method can effectively exfoliate nano clays within polymer matrices, leading to enhanced mechanical properties [20]. This method ensures uniform nanoparticle dispersion in polymer matrices but it has high energy consumption and may degrade heat-sensitive nanoparticles. Its complex setup and high cost also limit scalability [21].
Solution casting: This method is widely used for dispersing nanoparticles in polymer nanocomposites (PNCs) due to its simplicity and effectiveness. In this method, the polymer is dissolved in an appropriate solvent, and the nanoparticles are dispersed within the solution through ultrasonication or mechanical stirring to achieve uniform distribution. The homogeneous mixture is then cast onto a substrate and allowed to evaporate, leaving behind a nanocomposite film with well-dispersed nanoparticles. This approach ensures good interaction between the polymer matrix and nanoparticles, improving the mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties of the nanocomposite. However, nanoparticle agglomeration and solvent retention may affect composite properties, requiring process optimization. Despite this, solution casting is widely used, especially for thin films and coatings [22].
Melt blending: This is a widely used method for dispersing nanoparticles in polymer nanocomposites (PNCs) due to its scalability and environmental friendliness. In this technique, the polymer is heated above its melting temperature, and nanoparticles are incorporated using high-shear mixing to achieve uniform dispersion. This method is advantageous because it avoids the use of solvents and is compatible with conventional polymer processing techniques like extrusion and injection molding. However, achieving uniform dispersion remains a challenge due to the nanoparticle agglomeration caused by van der Waals forces. The functionalization of nanoparticles or the use of compatibilizers can enhance dispersion and interfacial adhesion between the polymer matrix and the nanofiller. Melt blending is extensively used for thermoplastic polymers such as polypropylene and polyethylene, making it a preferred technique for industrial applications [23].
Electrospinning: This method utilizes a high-voltage electrostatic field to draw charged polymer solutions or melts into ultrafine fibers, creating materials with high surface-area-to-volume ratios and unique properties. By incorporating nanoparticles into the polymer solution prior to electrospinning, they become uniformly embedded within the resulting nanofibers, leading to enhanced mechanical, electrical, or thermal properties in the PNCs. The process parameters of electrospinning, such as solution viscosity, electric potential, and flow rate, significantly influence the morphology and distribution of nanoparticles within the fibers. Optimizing these parameters is crucial for achieving desired characteristics in the final nanocomposite materials [24].
Therefore, all these physical methods have their own advantages, but they can also lead to poor long-term stability because of the lack of sufficient interfacial adhesion between the dispersed nanoparticles and the matrix surrounding them.

2.1.2. Chemical Dispersion Techniques

Chemical methods emphasize the surface modification of nanoparticles to attain good compatibility with the host matrix. Surface chemistry modification reduces agglomeration of the particles and increases interfacial bonding.
Sol–gel process: The sol–gel process is a widely used method for dispersing nanoparticles in PNCs due to its ability to achieve uniform distribution and enhanced interfacial interactions. This method involves the transition of a colloidal solution (sol) into a gel-like network through the hydrolysis and condensation reactions of metal alkoxides or inorganic salts, forming nanoparticles within the polymer matrix. The sol–gel process offers advantages such as low-temperature synthesis, high purity, and precise control over nanoparticle size and distribution, leading to improved mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties of PNCs [25]. Additionally, the surface functionalization of nanoparticles during the sol–gel process enhances their compatibility with polymer matrices, reducing agglomeration and improving dispersion. Applications of sol–gel-derived PNCs include advanced coatings, biomedical devices, and high-performance structural materials. Studies have demonstrated that the sol–gel approach significantly enhances the mechanical and thermal properties of polymer nanocomposites compared to conventional blending techniques [26]. Figure 2 illustrates the steps of the sol–gel process for PNCs.
Silane coupling agents: Silane compounds are among the chemical agents most employed to enhance the dispersion of nanoparticles in polymer matrices. These coupling agents can be incorporated; they have functional groups capable of reacting with hydrophilic nanoparticles and hydrophobic polymers, such as polyethylene or epoxy, forming a stable bridge. Silane treatments were also effective for the polyethylene-based nanocomposites; they improved both dielectric and mechanical properties due to reduction in nanoparticle agglomeration, for example, in silica. This procedure is particularly applicable where long-term stability and non-polar polymers are most needed [28]. Some commonly used silanes are listed in Table 1. Figure 3 illustrates the steps of the silane treatment process for PNCs.
Polymeric surfactants: Surfactants can also stabilize nanoparticles via the adsorption of molecules onto the nanoparticles’ surface, which provide an electrostatic or steric barrier against the reagglomeration of the particles. Figure 4 depicts the polymeric surfactants. This method is efficient in solvent-based systems or aqueous dispersion but is unsuitable for the non-polar matrices unless adopted with other techniques. For example, metal oxide dispersions can be stabilized by polymeric surfactants, as recently proved [30].
Therefore, the benefits of these chemical methods are in a creating stable, well-dispersed nanoparticle distribution for applications where mechanical and electrical integrity is important, such as in polymer-based electronics or insulation materials.

2.1.3. Combined Physical and Chemical Methods

Combining physical and chemical methods is often the most effective approach for achieving high-quality, long-lasting dispersions.
Hybrid techniques: These techniques usually involve surface treatment, normally as a first step (e.g., silane or surfactant treatment), followed by physical dispersion techniques such as ultrasonication or bead milling. Thus, high-shear mixing of the polymer matrix with silane-treated silica nanoparticles gives a physically dispersed distribution with good interfacial bonding. In fact, the hybrid technique seems to be well suited for the most used epoxy composites in structural and electrical applications. When combined with reactive diluents, this technique further enables easier processing by reducing the viscosity of resins, contributing to achieving an improved dispersion of particles without any loss in strength [32].
Reactive diluents: Reactive diluents in resin systems contribute to the reduction of viscosity and help in the homogeneous distribution of nanoparticles through physical dispersion. Viscosity reduction allows mechanical mixing techniques to disperse nanoparticles more efficiently, thereby leading to the improved strength and performance of the composite. This is especially valuable in high-performance composites such as those used in reinforced carbon fiber laminates [33].
The dispersion technique is selected according to factors such as the type of nanoparticles, the properties of the polymer matrix, and the specific requirements of the applications. Hybrid techniques—combinations of physical and chemical methods—are being increasingly applied, aiming for an optimized balance in dispersion qualities, stability, and processing efficiency.

2.2. Interactions Between Polymer Matrix and Nanocomposites

Polymer matrix–nanoparticle interactions play a major role in establishing the properties and performance of polymer nanocomposites. The polymer nanocomposite’s properties can be greatly improved by the favorable interaction of nanoparticles and polymer chains if nanoparticles are introduced. The properties of the absorbed layer in polymer nanocomposites are influenced by a variety of factors, such as the molecular weight and chain rigidity of the polymer, the size of the nanoparticles, the distribution of particles within the matrix, and the interactions between the particles and the polymer [34]. These interactions tend to be categorized into a number of classes according to the type of bonding as well as the physical or chemical nature of the interacting components.
Covalent bonding: Covalent bonding refers to the formation of intense chemical bonds between the polymer and the nanoparticles with significant modifications in segmental mobility and glass transition properties, mainly matrix-free polymer-grafted nanoparticles compared to physically adsorbed polymer-based polymer nanocomposites [35].
Electrostatic interactions: Electrostatic interactions are dominant in systems where positively charged metal ions interact with negatively charged polymer moieties, e.g., carboxylate ions. This interaction leads to high binding energies and the stability of the nanoparticles within the polymer matrix [36].
Anisotropic interactions: Anisotropic interactions result from orientation-dependent pressures between polymer-grafted nanoparticles. These pressures lead to the formation of new assembly patterns, e.g., sheets and threads. The interactions are controlled by the expulsion of polymer grafts and the steric repulsion gradients generated by this process [37].
The interactions between nanoparticles and the polymer matrix are intricate and play an important role in determining the properties of polymer nanocomposites. They vary from strong covalent bonds to weaker physical adsorptions and electrostatic attractions, each playing a specific role in the dynamic and structural properties of the composite material. Knowing these interactions is critical in the design of high-performance polymer nanocomposites for different applications.

2.3. Recent Advancement in Dispersion Techniques for PNCs

Recent advances, as shown in Figure 5, in nanoparticle dispersion techniques for polymers focus on improved compatibility, uniformity, and enhanced material properties. The following key methods demonstrate the latest progress and applications of nanoparticle dispersion in polymer composites.
Sonication and ultrasonication: Sonication, specifically ultrasonic-assisted methods, has emerged as a preferred approach for dispersing nanoparticles such as graphene oxide (GO) into polymer matrices. This method effectively reduces nanoparticle agglomeration by breaking down clusters, creating a uniform distribution within the matrix, which significantly enhances the composite’s mechanical strength, elasticity, and thermal properties. Earlier sonication techniques lacked precise control over amplitude and duration, often leading to inconsistent dispersion and potential nanoparticle damage. Recent advancements have optimized these parameters, ensuring uniform dispersion while preserving nanoparticle integrity, leading to improved mechanical, thermal, and elastic properties in polymer composites [38]. By enhancing nanoparticle dispersion, sonication contributes to polymers for automotive and biomedical applications, where material consistency is crucial for functionality.
Surface functionalization and chemical modifications: To achieve good dispersion and compatibility with the polymer matrices, surface functionalization—that is, the attachment of specific chemical groups to nanoparticle surfaces—was found to be important. Previously, nanoparticles tended to agglomerate due to poor compatibility with polymer matrices. Modern approaches now use targeted functionalization with hydroxyl, carboxyl, or amine groups, enhancing interfacial bonding, electrical conductivity, and mechanical reinforcement, especially in carbon-based nanomaterials. The functionalized nanoparticles have additional improved properties, including electrical conductivity, tensile strength, and thermal stability, suited for advanced applications in electronics, aerospace, and flexible devices [39].
Stabilizers and surfactants: The presence of stabilizers and surfactants in polymer nanocomposites results in the good dispersion of nanoparticles by reducing interfacial tension, hence preventing their agglomeration. Since surfactants form a thin layer around nanoparticles, these keep them dispersed, reducing the chance of agglomeration. This method has become particularly beneficial in making nanocomposites for electronic sensors, coatings, and high-conductivity materials since it ensures the integrity and uniform distribution of nanoparticles in the polymer. Early use of surfactants sometimes led to phase separation or weak mechanical properties. Recent innovations ensure better compatibility by tailoring surfactant chemistry for specific nanoparticles, leading to more stable dispersions crucial for electronic sensors and high-performance coatings. Paired with shear mixing, stabilizers improve the structural integrity of the material key factor in the stable conductive paths of electronic and thermal applications [40].
High-shear mixing: High-shear mixing is one of the mechanical dispersion techniques that impose high shearing forces to achieve a homogeneous dispersion of nanoparticles inside polymer matrices. This method has proved highly effective in making composites that require the maintenance of their structural integrity, for example, in self-healing materials and shape-memory polymers. Traditional mechanical mixing often results in uneven dispersion and particle clustering. Advancements in high-shear mixing have introduced controlled shearing forces, enabled homogenous distribution, and enabled the preparation of polymer nanocomposites with high mechanical strength, thermal stability, and longevity. This is particularly advantageous for the nanocomposites used in such sectors as construction and electronics, which require the strict control of mechanical properties for ensuring reliability in their performance [41].
Three-dimensional printing and additive manufacturing (AM): The combination of nanoparticles and additive manufacturing has represented a significant stride in generating tailored polymer nanocomposites for a wide range of 3D printing applications. Initially, nanoparticle dispersion in 3D printing materials was inconsistent, limiting mechanical performance. Innovations now integrate optimized sonication and precise nanoparticle incorporation into resins and filaments, enhancing structural integrity in biomedical and automotive applications. Techniques such as stereolithography (SLA) and fused deposition modeling (FDM) are designed to disperse the nanoparticles carefully to improve the mechanical properties of the 3D-printed materials. Sonication will, for instance, be needed to evenly disperse nanoparticles into SLA photopolymer resins in the creation of 3D-printed objects with better tensile strength and toughness. This development has been very important in the application of biomedical devices and automotive components due to both the complex shapes involved and the material properties required [42].
In situ polymerization: In situ polymerization initially disperses nanoparticles by mixing them in a monomer solution and subsequently performs polymerization, which fixes the nanoparticles inside the polymer matrix. This leads to the production of highly homogeneous nanocomposites with superior mechanical strength and thermal stability because, during the polymerization process, the nanoparticles are evenly embedded in the polymer. In situ polymerization is highly effective in creating nanocomposites that can serve as tough barrier materials for environmental applications in aggressive environments. Older in situ polymerization methods struggled with nanoparticle aggregation before polymerization, reducing uniformity. Recent improvements have involved the pre-treatment of nanoparticles and controlled reaction conditions, leading to highly stable and homogeneous nanocomposites with superior mechanical and thermal properties [43].
Shape-memory and self-healing composites: Improved nanoparticle dispersion has played a crucial role in the development of intelligent materials, including shape-memory and self-healing polymers. These composites incorporate nanoparticles like silica or graphene, which respond to thermal or mechanical stimuli, allowing polymers to regain their original shape or repair structural damage. Earlier versions faced challenges due to poor nanoparticle distribution, which limited their responsiveness. Recent advancements have significantly enhanced dispersion, leading to improved self-healing efficiency and shape recovery. This enhanced dispersion is essential for maintaining polymer responsiveness and ensuring durability in demanding applications such as aerospace and medical devices [44].

3. Industrial Applications of Advanced PNCs

The applications of nanocomposites span various industries, including the aerospace, automotive, electronics, biomedical, and environmental sectors. The aerospace and automotive industries use nanocomposites to manufacture lightweight, strong, and durable components that boost fuel efficiency and performance. In the area of electronics, polymer nanocomposites have been playing an important role in developing high-performance, flexible, and miniaturized devices. Biomedical applications in which nanocomposites have been used to great advantage include drug delivery systems, tissue engineering, and diagnostic tools, as they offer improved biocompatibility and functionality. Environmental applications include the use of nanocomposites in water purification, air filtration, and sustainable packaging solutions [13]. The concept has progressed a long way from when scientists first began to explore nanostructured materials.
Nanotechnology has gained significant attention for its better performance in a variety of contexts. In the aerospace industry, nanocomposites have excellent properties like lightweight, stiffness, etc. Due to these properties, nanocomposites are often the best choice for different aircraft parts, such as wings, fuselages, cockpit interiors, seat covers, etc., as shown in Figure 6. Nanocomposite coatings and infused materials, such as MgB2 and carbon nanotubes, enhance corrosion resistance and fatigue strength, ensuring safety [45]. The automobile industry, CNTs, graphene, and metal oxides can be used in bumpers, panels, and fuel tanks to provide increased strength, fuel efficiency, and a reduction in harmful emissions [46,47]. Marine applications use silica and titanium dioxide nanoparticles in corrosion resistance and desalination efficiency [48,49,50]. In packaging, nanotechnology improves the mechanical strength and antimicrobial properties of the packaging and facilitates environmentally friendly solutions such as edible films [51,52,53]. Electronics use graphene-enhanced nanocomposites for touch screens, boron nitride for heat dissipation, and magnetic nanoparticles for electromagnetic shielding [54,55,56,57]. Robotics include nanoantennae, metamaterials, and nanoscale transistors to increase computational power, signal quality, and network performance [58,59]. In agriculture, nano sensors detect pathogens, nano coatings extend farm tool life, and nanoparticles enhance crop health [60,61,62]. Food and nutrition benefit from nanotechnology-based spoilage indicators, nanoscale additives, and encapsulated preservatives [63,64,65,66].
Water treatment uses nanofillers to remove toxic metal ions organic/inorganic solutes and microorganisms from ground water and wastewater using nanofillers for efficient wastewater treatment for clean drinking water, as shown in Figure 7 [67,68,69]. Pharmaceuticals improve drug solubility, bioavailability, targeted delivery through nanosized medicines and biocompatible scaffolds, and microfluidics and microneedles for site-targeted, controlled drug delivery [70,71,72,73,74]. Animal science uses nanoscale sensors for diagnostics and nanoparticles for infection treatment, providing improved methods for both infection treatment and the management of metabolic disorders [70]. Catalysis improved efficiency, improved selectivity through metal-based nano catalysts, increased the surface area, and prepared highly selective and active catalysts for faster reaction speeds [74]. Energy-saving devices and energy production benefit from advanced materials that optimize efficiency and reduce costs compared to batteries and solar and fossil fuel technologies [75]. In textiles, silver, titanium dioxide, and zinc oxide nanoparticles inhibit bacterial growth; silicon dioxide and fluorinated silane coatings protect fabric; and antimony-doped tin oxide and silver nanoparticles can be used for static dissipation [75,76,77,78,79,80,81]. Nanotechnology in energy production enhances storage capacity and stability using materials like Ti2Nb2O9nanosheets and manganese/nickel oxides. Nanowires and core–shell structures boost photovoltaic efficiency and catalytic performance, while advanced nanomaterials ensure the high performance and extended lifespan of supercapacitors and batteries, optimizing overall energy conversion and storage [82,83,84,85,86]. Medical advancements include quantum dots for imaging, biomarker-detecting nanosensors, and silver nanoparticles for wound healing. The incorporation of nanoparticles such as MoS2 doped with rare earth elements improves electrical performance, which can be applied in bioelectronics and medical sensors to acquire better diagnostic tools. Scanning nonlinear dielectric microscopy plays a crucial role in characterizing PNCs, aiding in the design of advanced medical devices with precise electrical properties. Additionally, the eco-friendly potential of nanotechnology is emphasized, with green synthesis methods for PNCs being used in sustainable medical applications in the pharmaceutical industry, such as in drug delivery systems and wound healing materials [87,88,89,90,91,92,93]. Sport applications enhance equipment strength and performance monitoring [90]. Cosmetics use nanoemulsions for better absorption and UV protection [91]. Telecommunication will benefit from nanophotonic devices, nanoscale transistors, and graphene-based coatings for signal integrity [92,93]. Construction incorporates nanosilica, CNTs, and self-healing materials to improve strength, moisture resistance, and energy efficiency, leading to high-performance, recyclable building materials [94,95].
Therefore, nanocomposites and nanotechnology have broad applications across industries, enhancing material performance, durability, and efficiency. In aerospace and automotive sectors, they improve corrosion resistance, strength, and fuel efficiency. Nanotechnology also enhances marine corrosion resistance, agricultural productivity, food preservation, and water treatment. The pharmaceuticals use nanosized medicines for targeted drug delivery, while the energy sectors benefit from improved storage, efficiency, and cost reduction.

4. Recent Trends and Future Scope

PNC technology, the manipulation of matter on an atomic or molecular scale, has evolved dramatically in recent decades. Key advancements include using nanoparticles to create powerful catalysts, which enhance chemical reaction efficiency and reduce waste. Nanocomposites, which increase material strength and reduce weight, are a major application, exemplified by zinc oxide nanomaterials in sunscreens.

4.1. Recent Trends in PNC

Nanotechnology has roots tracing back to the very beginning of life, where single-celled organisms used RNA, DNA, and genes as nano assemblers to reproduce. The recent trends in PNCs, as listed in Table 2, highlight their growing importance and diverse applications, while future innovations promise to further expand their capabilities and impact.

4.2. Future Scope of PNC

Ongoing research and development in nanocomposite technology continues to push the boundaries of material capabilities, promising even more advanced and versatile applications in the future. By harnessing the unique properties of nanoparticles and combining them with conventional materials, scientists and engineers are creating next-generation materials that will meet the growing demands of various industries, leading to significant technological and societal advancements [98]. Table 3 describes the future scope and applications of PNCs.
Achieving uniform dispersion of nanoparticles in polymer nanocomposites (PNCs) remains a major challenge due to several critical factors. One of the primary difficulties is the high surface energy of nanoparticles, which often results in the agglomeration or poor interfacial adhesion between nanoparticles and the polymer matrix. Poor interfacial interactions significantly compromise mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties, limiting the full potential of PNCs. Additionally, conventional processing methods frequently fail to maintain nanoparticle dispersion, necessitating specialized techniques such as melt blending, solution mixing, or in situ polymerization. Moreover, scaling up laboratory-scale processes to industrial levels while maintaining consistent nanoparticle dispersion and properties poses substantial challenges. Achieving reproducibility across different batches and large-scale manufacturing processes is also problematic. Furthermore, the production costs associated with high-quality dispersion methods can be prohibitively expensive for mass-scale applications [99,100].
Recent studies have investigated various novel solutions to address these dispersion challenges. One promising approach is the pressing-and-folding (P&F) method inspired by the croissant-making process. This technique involves iterative cycles of folding and pressing polymer films containing nanoparticles at elevated temperatures. The pressing step generates strong flow fields that effectively break down agglomerates, align dispersed particles, and increase the nanoparticle–polymer contact area, leading to improved dispersion even at ultrahigh filler loadings. This method has demonstrated exceptional mechanical reinforcement close to theoretical maxima and has shown potential scalability for industrial applications [101]. Another innovative approach involves using low-energy bead milling techniques to optimize nanoparticle dispersion. Studies indicate that bead size, milling time, and rotation speed significantly influence dispersion quality. Smaller beads (15–30 μm) have been found effective in achieving the complete dispersion of nanoparticles without the reagglomeration issues observed with larger beads. However, excessive energy input during milling can damage primary particles, causing reagglomeration. Therefore, identifying optimal milling parameters is crucial for maintaining stable nanoparticle dispersions in PNCs [102]. Additionally, surface modification strategies have emerged as effective methods for enhancing nanoparticle dispersibility. Adsorbing polymers onto nanoparticle surfaces can significantly improve their stability during the drying processes by preventing dense agglomeration and promoting loose cluster formation [103]. For instance, poly 2-vinylpyridine (P2VP) strongly adsorbs onto silica nanoparticles when cast from methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), creating sterically stabilized “hairy” particles that resist agglomeration and ensure uniform dispersion in polymer matrices. Conversely, improper solvent selection can lead to poor dispersion due to inadequate polymer adsorption on nanoparticle surfaces [104].

5. Conclusions

Recent developments in the field of PNC technology have focused on better ways to disperse nanoparticles, to improve how different phases of the materials work together, and to refine production methods like in situ polymerization and sol–gel processes. These techniques have allowed scientists to make materials both strong and flexible simultaneously for certain applications. Advanced manufacturing techniques, such as melt compounding, solution casting, and electrospinning, are used to achieve uniform nanoparticle dispersion in the polymer matrix, which ensures the consistent properties and high performance of the nanocomposite packaging material. The unique light and electromagnetic properties of nanoparticles have led to innovations like nanoglues for optoelectronics. Nanotechnology’s impact spans various fields, including aerospace, where it reduces fuel consumption, and medicine, where it aids in heart monitoring and UV protection via titanium nanoparticles. Advanced techniques, such as sonication, surface functionalization, and stabilizers, enhance dispersion, boosting mechanical strength and conductivity. High-shear mixing, 3D printing, and in situ polymerization ensure structural integrity, while self-healing composites improve durability in aerospace and medical applications.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.M.R. and K.H.K.; methodology, M.M.R. and K.H.K.; formal analysis, M.M.R. and M.N.U.; investigation, K.H.K., M.M.H.P. and N.I.; resources, M.M.R., N.I. and M.N.U.; writing—original draft preparation, M.M.R., K.H.K. and M.M.H.P.; writing—review and editing, all authors; visualization, K.H.K. and M.M.H.P.; supervision, M.M.R. and M.N.U.; project administration, M.M.R. and M.N.U. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Processes 13 00994 g001
Figure 1. Physical dispersion techniques for PNCs.
Figure 1. Physical dispersion techniques for PNCs.
Processes 13 00994 g001
Processes 13 00994 g002
Figure 2. Sol–gel process [27].
Figure 2. Sol–gel process [27].
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Figure 3. Silane treatment process of PNCs.
Figure 3. Silane treatment process of PNCs.
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Figure 4. Polymeric surfactants for chemical dispersion [31].
Figure 4. Polymeric surfactants for chemical dispersion [31].
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Figure 5. Recent advancement in dispersion techniques.
Figure 5. Recent advancement in dispersion techniques.
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Figure 6. Applications of PNCs in aerospace industry.
Figure 6. Applications of PNCs in aerospace industry.
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Figure 7. Wastewater treatment for cleaning water with PNCs.
Figure 7. Wastewater treatment for cleaning water with PNCs.
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Table 1. Commonly used silanes for the dispersion of nanoparticles in PNCs.
Table 1. Commonly used silanes for the dispersion of nanoparticles in PNCs.
Silane NameChemical FormulaChemical StructureReferences
3-Methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane C10H20SiCH=C(CH3)COO(CH2)3Si(OCH)3[28]
3-Mercaptopropyltriethoxysilane C9H22O3SSiHS(CH2)3Si(OCH3CH3)3[29]
Vinyltriethoxysilane C5H12O3SiCH2=CHSi(OCHCH3)3[29]
y-Aminopropyltriethoxysilane C9H23NO3SiNH2(CH2)3Si(OCH2CH3)3[28]
Bis-3Triethoxysilylpropyl Tetrasulfide C18H42O6S4Si2(CH2)3Si(OCH2CH3)3-S-S-S-S-(CH2)3Si(OCH2CH3)3[29]
Table 2. Recent trends in the polymer nanocomposites [96,97].
Table 2. Recent trends in the polymer nanocomposites [96,97].
CategoryDescriptionExamples
NanomedicineImproves targeted drug delivery, reducing side effects and boosting treatment efficacyNanoparticles release drugs at specific sites like tumors, enabling effective cancer treatment; advanced imaging tools
NanoelectronicsEnables creation of smaller, faster, and more-efficient devicesCarbon nanotubes and graphene in transistors for enhanced computing; flexible electronics for medical devices
Energy Storage and GenerationAdvances the performance of batteries, supercapacitors, and solar cellsLithium-ion batteries with nanostructured electrodes offer higher energy densities; nanomaterials improve solar cells
Environmental ApplicationsAddresses environmental challenges like water purification and pollution controlNanofilters for cleaner water; sensors for pollution monitoring; nanoremediation for contaminated sites
Nanomaterials in Consumer ProductsEnhances the properties of everyday items, including cosmetics, clothing, and food packagingNanoparticles improve UV protection in fabrics, enhance cosmetics’ efficacy, and create antimicrobial coatings
Table 3. Future directions and applications of PNCs.
Table 3. Future directions and applications of PNCs.
CategoryDescriptionApplications
Advancements in NanomedicineFocus on personalized medicine through nanobots for targeted drug delivery and minimally invasive surgeriesNanobots delivering drugs directly to diseased cells; integration with AI for complex disease treatment
Quantum Computing and NanoelectronicsRole of PNCs in developing quantum computing through quantum dots and nanoscale transistors for efficient devicesQuantum dots as qubits; nanoscale interconnects enhancing computational power and efficiency
Sustainable Energy SolutionsUse of nanomaterials in advanced energy storage systems and improving renewable energy technologiesSolid-state batteries; enhanced solar cells; efficient hydrogen production
PNCs in AgricultureDevelopment of smart farming practices with nanopesticides, nanofertilizers, and monitoring systems for optimized resource useEnhanced crop yields; real-time soil and crop condition monitoring; disease-resistant crops
Advanced Materials and ManufacturingInnovations in nanocomposites with enhanced properties for various industries and advancements in 3D printing techniquesLightweight materials for aerospace and automotive applications; customized structures with nanoscale precision
Environmental Sustainability and PNCsRole of PNCs in water purification, waste management, and developing biodegradable materialsNanomaterials for cleaner environments; eco-friendly products aligned with circular economy principles
Healthcare and DiagnosticsDevelopment of nanoscale biosensors and diagnostic tools for early disease detection and personalized medicineRapid diagnostic tools with high sensitivity; integration with wearable devices for remote healthcare
PNCs in Space ExplorationPotential of PNCs in creating durable materials for space applications and in situ resource utilizationLightweight materials for spacecraft; sensors and systems for monitoring space missions
Ethical and Regulatory ConsiderationsImportance of evaluating risks and benefits of PNCs, focusing on health, environmental impacts, and regulatory frameworksDeveloping comprehensive regulations and public engagement strategies for safe PNC development
Education and Workforce DevelopmentThe increasing role of nanotechnology necessitates specialized training programs to develop a skilled workforceUniversity degree programs; specialized nanotechnology certifications; hands-on lab training; industry–academic partnerships
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MDPI and ACS Style

Rahman, M.M.; Khan, K.H.; Parvez, M.M.H.; Irizarry, N.; Uddin, M.N. Polymer Nanocomposites with Optimized Nanoparticle Dispersion and Enhanced Functionalities for Industrial Applications. Processes 2025, 13, 994. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13040994

AMA Style

Rahman MM, Khan KH, Parvez MMH, Irizarry N, Uddin MN. Polymer Nanocomposites with Optimized Nanoparticle Dispersion and Enhanced Functionalities for Industrial Applications. Processes. 2025; 13(4):994. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13040994

Chicago/Turabian Style

Rahman, Md Mahbubur, Karib Hassan Khan, Md Mahadi Hassan Parvez, Nelson Irizarry, and Md Nizam Uddin. 2025. "Polymer Nanocomposites with Optimized Nanoparticle Dispersion and Enhanced Functionalities for Industrial Applications" Processes 13, no. 4: 994. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13040994

APA Style

Rahman, M. M., Khan, K. H., Parvez, M. M. H., Irizarry, N., & Uddin, M. N. (2025). Polymer Nanocomposites with Optimized Nanoparticle Dispersion and Enhanced Functionalities for Industrial Applications. Processes, 13(4), 994. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13040994

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