Food Defense in the Extra Neutral Alcohol Industry: Ensuring Safety Against Intentional Contaminations
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Overview of Food Defense in the Global Food Industry
- Large companies: until July 2019;
- Small companies (less than 500 employees): until July 2020;
- Very small companies (with less than USD 10 million in revenue over 3 years): until July 2021 [14].
3. Key Vulnerabilities and Preventive Strategies in Food Defense
- Assess vulnerabilities;
- Write a plan;
- Prepare a response plan; and
- Manage the plan.
- Develop a Food Defense Plan;
- Implement mitigation strategies and protective measures;
- Test the mitigation strategies and protective measures;
- Review and maintain.
- Risk Analysis: Companies should conduct a comprehensive risk analysis to identify and assess all potential threats to food safety.
- Access Control: Access to critical areas of the factory and production facilities should be restricted to authorized and supervised personnel only.
- Background Checks: Background checks should be conducted for all employees, suppliers, and visitors before granting access to company facilities.
- Employee Training: All employees should be trained in food safety measures, including recognizing signs of potential threats and the actions to take in case of incidents.
- Monitoring: Companies should continuously monitor production facilities, equipment, and raw materials to detect any signs of potential threats.
- Cybersecurity: Companies must ensure the security of information technology (IT) systems and production data to prevent cyberattacks.
- Supplier Control: Companies should ensure that all suppliers and subcontractors adhere to the same strict food defense standards.
- Communication: Establish clear and open communication with employees, suppliers, customers, and partners to share information about potential threats and preventive measures.
4. Importance of Food Defense Plan in the Extra Neutral Alcohol Industry
4.1. Ehanol Production Worldwide
4.2. Types of Alcohol
- Anhydrous Ethyl Alcohol: Used as an additive in fuels, composed of 99.5% pure alcohol and 0.5% water. It is suitable for chemical industries as raw material for paints, varnishes, and solvents.
- Hydrated Ethyl Alcohol: It contains 96% pure alcohol and 4% water, suitable for the chemical and cleaning industries.
- Neutral Ethyl Alcohol or Extra Neutral: Utilized in the production of beverages, foods, cosmetics, and medicines. It does not interfere with the aroma as it is the purest form of alcohol. The production of extra neutral alcohol involves additional purification steps, such as hydroselection and redistillation [35,36].
4.3. Extra Neutral Alcohol Applied in Foods
4.4. Manufacturing and Fractionation of Extra Neutral Alcohol
5. Potential Hazards
- Physical Hazards: Refers to the presence of foreign objects, particles, or physical substances in food that can cause physical harm when consumed. Examples include glass fragments, metal, plastic, wood chips, stones, among others.
- Chemical Hazards: Relates to the presence of unwanted chemicals in food that can pose health risks when ingested. Examples include pesticides, excessive food additives, residues from cleaning products, heavy metals, aflatoxins, among others.
- Biological Hazards: Refers to the presence of microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi in food that can cause diseases when consumed. Examples include Salmonella, E. coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Campylobacter, Norovirus, among others.
Possible Contamination Pathways in the Production of Extra Neutral Alcohol
- Solubility: Ethanol is miscible in water, meaning it dissolves completely in water in all proportions. This property is fundamental in many applications, including the production of alcoholic beverages.
- Boiling and Freezing Points: The boiling point of ethanol is relatively low, about 78.37 °C. This facilitates distillation during the production of alcoholic beverages. The freezing point is −114.1 °C.
- Flammability: Ethanol is flammable. It can catch fire at relatively low temperatures, making it useful as fuel in internal combustion engines and as an ingredient in flammable products.
- Disinfectant and Antiseptic: Alcohol is known for its disinfectant and antiseptic properties. Alcoholic solutions are commonly used to clean and disinfect surfaces and hands.
- Psychoactive Effect: The consumption of ethanol has psychoactive effects. It acts as a depressant of the central nervous system, causing changes in mood, coordination, and judgment.
- Heat Production: Burning alcohol releases heat. This is one of the principles behind the use of alcohol as fuel.
- Toxicity: Alcohol in large quantities can be toxic to the human body. Excessive consumption can lead to health problems, including damage to the liver, nervous system, and other organs.
- Polar Character: Due to the presence of the hydroxyl group, ethanol is a polar molecule. This characteristic influences its interactions with other substances [56].
6. Future Recommendations
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Food Defense 101 | See Something, Say Something Campaign | Employees FIRST |
---|---|---|
A: alert | The “See Something, Say Something” campaign encourages the public to report suspicious activities to the authorities, engaging people in crime and public safety threat prevention. By reporting unusual behavior, citizens assist authorities in identifying potential threats, thereby preventing security incidents. | F: Follow company food defense plan and procedures |
L: look | I: Inspect your work area and surrounding areas | |
E: employees | R: Recognize anything out of ordinary | |
R: reports | S: Secure all ingredients, supplies, and finished product | |
T: threat | T: Tell management if you notice anything unusual or suspicious |
Subject | Area | Authors |
---|---|---|
Food defense and the PAS 96:2017 standard [5] in protecting the Brazilian animal-based food supply chain from intentional threats | Supply chain | Cavalheiro et al., 2017 [10] |
Risk management of food defense and the application of the CARVER + SHOCK tool in slaughterhouses. | Tool for food defense | Aguiar; Kushida, 2020 [18] |
Protection against intentional threats to food safety, using the CARVER + Shock tool in the Brazilian dairy industry. | Tool for food defense | Romero, 2017 [19] |
Manual on Food Defense Focused on Intentional Food Contamination | Food | Weaber; Clarke; Carlson Shannon, 2009 [20] |
Positive Feedback from the Implementation of Food Defense Plans | Food | Manning.; Soon, 2016 [21] |
Study of Attacks and Their Consequences on Food and Water from 1946 to Mid-2015 | Food and water | Brainard; Hunter, 2016 [22] |
The Importance of Creating a Pre and Post-Processing Food Defense Plan, Considering Intentional Contaminations | Food | Lorenzen; Cutter, 2017 [13] |
Guide for Food Industries and Authorities to Prevent Intentional Attacks on Food | Food | Moerman, 2018 [23] |
Development of an Effective Food Defense Plan in the Food Industry | Food | Manning, 2019 [24] |
The Evolution of Food Defense and the Emergence of Food Terrorism | Food | Bashura, 2020 [16] |
Verification of Food Safety in Brazilian Dairy Industries | Dairy | Lopes et al., 2020 [11] |
Implementation of a Food Defense Plan for the Brazilian Army | Military supplies | Farias et al., 2020 [17] |
Assessment of the Implementation of a Food Defense Plan in a Meat Processing Industry and Comparison of Vulnerabilities with an Industry in Portugal Already Implementing Adequate Measures | Meat processing | Manning; Soon, 2021 [25] |
FDA’s Initiatives to Defend the Food Chain from Intentional Contaminations, and the Significance of Training Skilled Professionals in the Field | Food | Andrade; Oliveira; Silva, 2021 [26] |
Unauthorized Food Handling and the descriptions of the criminal aspect of food fraud incidents | Food | Jurica et al., 2021 [27] |
Intentional Contaminations in the Dairy Industry and the Significance of Applying Tools to Ensure Food Quality and Safety, Along with Product Traceability | Dairy industry | Wiśniewska; Tarczyńska; Ranadheera, 2022 [1] |
Identification and Prevention of Possible Microbiological Hazards in Livestock and Vegetable Primary Production | Food production | Djurle et al., 2022 [15] |
A 10-Year Evolution of Food Fraud prevention to Understand and Identify Food Fraud Incidents | Food | Spink, 2023 [8] |
Consumer Concerns about Food Safety After Inquiring About Intentional and Unintentional Food Contaminations, Along with Their Health Risks | Food | Larson, 2023 [28] |
Unit | Alcohol Extra Neutral | Hydrated Ethyl Alcohol | Anhydrous Ethyl Alcohol | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aspect | - | clear. flammable liquid free from impurities | clear. flammable liquid free from impurities | clear. flammable liquid free from impurities |
good. characteristic | good. characteristic | good. characteristic | ||
Specific Mass 20 °C [37] | g/cm3 | 0.8037–0.8071 | 0.8076–0.8110 | Maximum 0.7915 |
Specific Mass 15.56 °C [37] | g/cm3 | 0.8075–0.8109 | 0.8114–0.8147 | Maximum 0.7953 |
Alcoholic Content 20 °C [37] | INPM (%p/p) | 94.00–95.20 | 92.60–93.80 | Minimum 99.30 |
Alcoholic Content 20 °C [37] | °GL (%v/v) | 96.10–97.00 | 95.10–96.00 | Minimum 99.60 |
Relative Density 20 °C [37] | 0.8051–0.8085 | |||
Total Acidity [38] | mg/L | 3–12 | Maximum 30 | Maximum 30 |
pH [39] | 6.0–8.0 | |||
Barbet [40] | minutos | Minimum 35 | ||
Distillation Range [41] | °C | |||
Initial [41] | °C | Minimum 75.0 | Minimum 75.0 | Minimum 75.0 |
Final [41] | °C | Minimum 85.0 | Maximum 85.0 | Maximum 85.0 |
Residue By Evaporation [42] | mg/100 mL | Minimum 2.5 | Maximum 2.5 | Maximum 2.5 |
Absorbance Uv [43] | 240 Nm: Maximum 0.40 | |||
Absorbance Uv [43] | 250–260 Nm: Maximum 0.30 | |||
Absorbance Uv [43] | 270–340 Nm: Maximum 0.10 | |||
Acetaldehyde [44] | mg/L | Maximum 10.0 | ||
Acetone [44] | mg/L | Maximum 10.0 | ||
Ethyl Acetate [44] | mg/L | Maximum 10.0 | ||
Acetal [44] | mg/L | Maximum 10.0 | ||
N-Propanol [44] | mg/L | Maximum 10.0 | ||
Isobutanol [44] | mg/L | Maximum 10.0 | ||
N-Butanol [44] | mg/L | Maximum 10.0 | ||
Isoamyl Alcohol [44] | mg/L | Maximum 10.0 |
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Pizarro, I.F.; Barbosa, T.G.C.; Kushida, M.M.; Kamimura, E.S. Food Defense in the Extra Neutral Alcohol Industry: Ensuring Safety Against Intentional Contaminations. Processes 2025, 13, 1243. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13041243
Pizarro IF, Barbosa TGC, Kushida MM, Kamimura ES. Food Defense in the Extra Neutral Alcohol Industry: Ensuring Safety Against Intentional Contaminations. Processes. 2025; 13(4):1243. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13041243
Chicago/Turabian StylePizarro, Isabely Fernanda, Thayná Gomes Camargo Barbosa, Marta Mitsui Kushida, and Eliana Setsuko Kamimura. 2025. "Food Defense in the Extra Neutral Alcohol Industry: Ensuring Safety Against Intentional Contaminations" Processes 13, no. 4: 1243. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13041243
APA StylePizarro, I. F., Barbosa, T. G. C., Kushida, M. M., & Kamimura, E. S. (2025). Food Defense in the Extra Neutral Alcohol Industry: Ensuring Safety Against Intentional Contaminations. Processes, 13(4), 1243. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13041243