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Article

Comparative Effects of Total, Water-Extractable, and Water-Unextractable Arabinoxylans from Wheat Bran on Dough and Noodle Properties

by
Hyeonsu Han
1,
Bomi Kim
1,
Jaeha An
1 and
Meera Kweon
1,2,*
1
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
2
Kimchi Research Institute, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Processes 2025, 13(10), 3051; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13103051
Submission received: 19 August 2025 / Revised: 18 September 2025 / Accepted: 23 September 2025 / Published: 24 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing and Quality Control of Agro-Food Products)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

This study investigated the functional properties of arabinoxylan (AX) fractions—total (TAX), water-unextractable (WUAX), and water-extractable (WEAX)—isolated from three domestic wheat brans and their impact on flour functionality and noodle quality. WUAX was the predominant AX type, and it exhibited the highest water-absorption capacity, resulting in firmer dough and noodles but reduced visual and structural uniformity. By contrast, WEAX, characterized by a lower molecular weight and higher solubility, produced softer, more ductile dough and improved antioxidant properties, as indicated by elevated total phenolic content and scavenging activity against 2,2′-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid radical. TAX demonstrated an intermediate behavior between that of WUAX and WEAX. AX addition produced no significant effect on gluten quality based on sodium dodecyl sulfate-sedimentation volume but substantially influenced the water solvent-retention capacity, dough development, and noodle texture. Functional differences were also observed among the wheat varieties, suggesting that both AX type and bran source affect performance. These findings demonstrate the potential for the targeted application of AX fractions to enhance the processing quality and nutritional value of wheat-based products, such as noodles, providing a basis for optimizing the use of functional ingredients in cereal food formulations.

1. Introduction

Wheat is one of the three major crops worldwide and the second most consumed staple food in Korea after rice. However, Korea has an exceptionally low wheat self-sufficiency rate owing to limited price competitiveness and quality differences caused by climatic conditions. Korea imports approximately 2.2 million tons of wheat annually, primarily from the United States, Canada, and Australia [1]. Previous studies have reported that the protein content of Korean wheat flour is similar to or higher than that of U.S. wheat flour [2,3]; however, its protein quality is relatively inferior due to its lower gluten content and strength [3,4]. This situation emphasizes the need to improve the quality of wheat-based products by breeding elite domestic wheat cultivars or supplementing them with health-promoting ingredients. Approximately 1.8 million tons of flour milled from imported wheat is produced annually in Korea. Of this flour, 75% is all-purpose flour, primarily used for noodle production [1]. The quality of wheat flour depends on factors such as wheat variety; cultivation region; and processing conditions, including milling and baking [5]. Among the major flour components, proteins and starch, particularly gluten and damaged starch, influence water absorption, pasting viscosity, and dough elasticity, all of which are critical for noodle quality [6]. Additionally, arabinoxylans (AXs) play an important role because of their high water-absorption properties.
In addition, AXs provide various health benefits, including blood glucose regulation and chronic disease prevention because they function as prebiotic dietary fibers [7]. Their phenolic compounds further contribute to the antioxidant activity, supporting anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects through radical scavenging mechanisms [8,9]. Consequently, incorporation of AXs into wheat-based products is gaining interest. Whole grains contain approximately 4.8–6.1% AXs, whereas refined wheat flour contains 1.5–2.5%.
AXs are composed of a linear chain of β-(1–4)-linked ᴅ-xylopyranosyl units substituted with α-ʟ-arabinofuranosyl residues, which may carry additional groups such as ferulic acid attached to the arabinose moiety [7,10]. On the basis of their solubility, AXs are classified as water-extractable arabinoxylans (WEAX) and water-unextractable arabinoxylans (WUAX) [11,12,13]. Various extraction methods are available, including water, alkaline, enzymatic, and acid extraction [14]. Among these, water, alkaline, and enzymatic methods are more commonly used, either individually or in combination, depending on the source material or the target AX fraction [15]. Water extraction is simple but only yields WEAX. Alkaline extraction is effective for obtaining WUAX from cell wall materials, but it may break ester linkages between arabinose residues and ferulic acids. Enzymatic extraction is also straightforward but prevents the separation of ferulic acids [16]. Therefore, the extraction method affects the properties and quality of the final extract, so selecting the most appropriate method for a given application is essential.
Numerous studies have investigated the effects of AXs on product characteristics, particularly in bread, focusing on their impact on rheological properties and overall bread quality [17,18,19], as well as analyzing the AX content and its changes during the bread-making process [20]. In contrast, studies on their effects in noodles remain limited. Fan et al. [21] reported reduced dough sheet color, increased water absorption, decreased cooking loss rate, and enhanced texture in cooked noodles prepared with flour supplemented with 0.12–1.00% AX compared to noodles prepared from flour that was not supplemented with AXs. Kim and Kweon [22] examined the effects of AXs with various molecular weights on flours with different gluten strengths and the resulting noodle quality. To date, investigations into the impact of AX types on dough and noodle quality have been scarce and merit further study.
Therefore, in this study, total arabinoxylan (TAX), WUAX, and WEAX extracted from the bran of three Korean wheat varieties (Goso [GS], Hojoong [HJ], and Joongmo [JM]) were selected based on their differences in gluten content and intended use. These extracts were incorporated into commercial wheat flour to evaluate their effects on dough properties, noodle quality, and antioxidant activity.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

Wheat bran from three Korean domestic wheat varieties, GS, HJ, and JM, were provided by the National Institute of Crop Science in Korea. These wheat varieties show high (JM), medium (HJ), and low (GS) gluten strength, and they are suitable for bread, noodles, and cookies and cakes, respectively. Commercial wheat flour with medium gluten strength was used as the control (Samyang, Asan, Republic of Korea), and salt (Samyang, Seoul, Republic of Korea) was purchased from a local market. All experiments were performed using first-grade reagents.

2.2. Analysis of AX Content of Wheat Bran

The AX content of wheat bran was measured using modified methods based on those described by Douglas [23] and Kiszonas et al. [24]. A xylose standard curve was constructed using xylose solutions at concentrations of 0.0125, 0.0250, 0.0500, 0.1000, and 0.2000 mg/mL. To determine the TAX, WEAX, and WUAX contents, 100 mg of the bran sample was mixed with 40 mL of distilled water and vortexed to obtain a homogeneous suspension. An aliquot (1 mL) of the suspension was transferred to a glass test tube (25 mL), and 1 mL of distilled water was added to adjust the total volume to 2 mL (TAX sample). The remaining suspension was mixed at 80 rpm for 30 min at room temperature using a vertical rotary mixer (VM-80, MIULAB, Hangzhou, China). After mixing, the suspension was centrifuged at 2500× g for 10 min, and 1 mL of the supernatant was collected. An additional 1 mL of distilled water was added to the supernatant, resulting in a 2 mL solution (WEAX sample).
The extraction solution (10 mL) contained 110 mL of glacial acetic acid, 2 mL of hydrochloric acid, 5 mL of 20% (w/v) phloroglucinol in ethanol, and 1 mL of 1.75% (w/v) glucose in water; it was added to the blank, TAX, and WEAX samples. The tubes containing each solution were vortexed, heated in boiling water for 25 min, and then cooled to room temperature.
As described by Kiszonas et al. [24], absorbance at 510 nm (primarily hexoses), measured with a spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific Multiskan GO, Seoul, Republic of Korea), was subtracted from that at 552 nm (pentoses and hexoses) to eliminate interference from hexose sugars. TAX and WEAX concentrations were determined using a xylose standard curve, calculated as xylose equivalents (mg/mL), and expressed as a percentage of xylose equivalents (%) on a dry weight basis. The WUAX content was calculated as the difference between TAX and WEAX.

2.3. Extraction of AXs from Wheat Bran

2.3.1. Defatting Process of Wheat Bran

AXs were extracted according to the methods described by Höije et al. [25] and Si et al. [26], with slight modifications. Bran was defatted using 90% ethanol at a 1:5 ratio (bran:ethanol) in a shaking incubator for 1 h. After incubation, ethanol was removed under vacuum, and the defatted bran was dried at room temperature for 24 h and used for AX extraction.

2.3.2. Extraction of TAX, WUAX, and WEAX

The brief extraction scheme for the AX fractions is illustrated in Figure 1. To extract TAX, defatted bran was mixed with water at a 1:5.5 ratio (bran:water). The mixture was shaken at 35 °C for 30 min in a shaking incubator. Sequential enzymatic treatments were applied: α-amylase (pH 6.9) for 2 h, protease (pH 7.5) for 2 h, and lichenase (pH 5.5) for 2 h. Amyloglucosidase (pH 6.5) was added, and the mixture was incubated overnight. The mixture was then boiled at 100 °C for 30 min and centrifuged at 3000× g for 15 min. For TAX, the bran residue and supernatant were subjected to 0.75 M NaOH extraction overnight, followed by 75% ethanol precipitation for 30 min. For WUAX, only the bran fraction was subjected to 0.75 M NaOH extraction overnight, followed by precipitation using 75% ethanol for 30 min. For WEAX, only the separated supernatant was precipitated using 75% ethanol for 30 min. Each resulting solution was dialyzed for 2 days and freeze-dried to obtain the final TAX, WUAX, and WEAX.

2.4. Analysis of Constituent Sugars in AXs

Compositional sugar analysis of AXs was conducted using high-performance anion-exchange chromatography coupled with pulsed amperometric detection (HPAEC-PAD), using an ED40 electrochemical detector (Dionex, Sunnyvale, CA, USA). A CarboPac™ PA1 column was used, with an injection volume of 20 μL. Elution was performed using 18 and 200 mM NaOH at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. Fucose, rhamnose, arabinose, galactose, glucose, xylose, and fructose were used as standards at a concentration of 0.005% (w/v). The monosaccharide composition results are expressed as relative area values (%), focusing primarily on four sugars: arabinose, galactose, glucose, and xylose.

2.5. Analysis of Water Solvent-Retention Capacity (SRC) of Wheat Flours Supplemented with AXs

The water SRC test was performed according to the AACC method 56-11.02 [27]. Five grams of flour and 0.1 g of wheat flour or AX sample (2% of the flour weight) were placed in a conical tube, followed by the addition of 25 g of distilled water. The mixture was shaken every 5 min for 20 min and centrifuged (LaboGene1248, Gyrozen Inc., Daejeon, Republic of Korea) at 1000× g for 15 min. After draining for 10 min, the weight was measured to calculate the SRC in each solvent.

2.6. Measurement of Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS)-Sedimentation Volume of Wheat Flours Supplemented with AXs

The SDS-sedimentation volume was determined according to the AACC method 56-70.01 [27]. Five grams of flour and 0.1 g of wheat flour or AX (2% of flour weight) were added to a 100 mL graduated cylinder, followed by the addition of 50 mL of water. The mixture was shaken, and then 50 mL of a 3% SDS–lactic solution was added and shaken again. The gluten quality was evaluated by measuring the sedimentation volume (mL) at 20, 40, and 60 min.

2.7. Analysis of Dough-Mixing Property of Wheat Flours Supplemented with AXs

Dough-mixing properties were analyzed using a mixograph (National Manufacturing Co., Lincoln, NE, USA) according to AACC method 54-40.02 [27]. Ten grams of flour and 0.2 g of wheat flour or AX (2% of flour weight) were placed in a mixing bowl, and 6.0 and 6.3 g of distilled water (adjusted according to the water SRC values) was added. The mixture was kneaded for 10 min to evaluate dough development.

2.8. Assessment of Wheat Flours with AXs for Their Performance in Fresh- and Cooked-Noodle Preparation

2.8.1. Preparation of Fresh and Cooked Noodles with AXs

The noodle-making process was performed using slight modifications to the method described by Guo et al. [28]. A 100 g flour sample was mixed with 2% of its weight in either wheat flour or AX, depending on the test group, and placed in a micro pin mixer bowl (National Manufacturing Inc.). Distilled water was added according to the water SRC value (calculated using the specified formula), along with 2 g of salt. The mixture was kneaded for 15 min. The dough was transferred into a plastic bag and rested for 30 min at 35 °C under 85% humidity in an incubator (Phantom M301 Combi, Samjung, Gyeonggi, Republic of Korea). After resting, the dough was sheeted to thicknesses of 3.0, 2.0, and 1.5 mm and cut into 15 × 35 mm noodle strands using a noodle maker (SN-88; Samwoo Industrial Co., Daegu, Republic of Korea). The appearance, color, and texture of the fresh noodles were assessed. A portion of the fresh noodles (32 ± 1 g) was boiled in 500 mL of distilled water for 15 min. The cooking water was used to measure turbidity, and the cooked noodles were rinsed with tap water, photographed, and analyzed for texture. The remaining fresh and cooked noodles were frozen for subsequent analysis of antioxidant activities.

2.8.2. Measurement of Texture of Fresh Noodles

A texture analyzer (CT3, Brookfield, Middleboro, MA, USA) was used to assess the resistance (R) and extensibility (E) of fresh noodles (2.0 mm width × 1.5 mm thickness). The test parameters were configured as follows: tension mode, pretest speed of 2 mm/s, test speed of 3.3 mm/s, Kieffer Rig probe (TA-KF), and a target distance of 20 mm. Subsequently, the resistance-to-extensibility ratio (R/E) was calculated.

2.8.3. Measurement of Weight Gain of Cooked Noodles and Turbidity of Cooking Water

The weight gain of the noodles after cooking was calculated by measuring the weight of fresh noodles immediately after cutting and cooking. The difference between the weights of the fresh and cooked noodles was expressed as a percentage (%) of weight gain. After the cooking water was cooled to room temperature, its turbidity was measured using a spectrophotometer (X-ma 6100PC, Human Corporation, Seoul, Republic of Korea) at a wavelength of 675 nm.

2.8.4. Analysis of Texture of Cooked Noodles

The textural properties of the cooked noodles were evaluated using a texture analyzer (CT3) equipped with an Asian noodle rig (TA 7). Five strands of cooked noodles, each 6 cm in length, were aligned on a testing plate. The measurement was conducted in TPA mode under the following conditions: pretest speed of 2 mm/s, test speed of 1 mm/s, and deformation of 70%. Firmness, adhesiveness, springiness, and chewiness were measured.

2.9. Measurement of Total Phenolic Content (TPC) and Antioxidant Activities of Fresh and Cooked Noodles

The TPC of fresh and cooked noodles with AXs was analyzed using a modification of a method reported by Yu and Beta [29]. Fresh and cooked noodles were freeze-dried for 4 days, ground using a grinder (WSG-9100, Joong San Co., Seoul, Republic of Korea), and passed through a 200 μm sieve. A 2 g sample was extracted twice with 10 mL of 80% methanol, shaken for 60 min using a rotator (CN/VM-80, MIULAB) away from light. The samples were then sonicated at 0 °C and 40 kHz for 15 min. Subsequently, the mixture was centrifuged at 12,000× g at 4 °C for 15 min. The supernatant was collected, filtered through 90 mm filter paper (Qualitative Filter Paper No. 2, ADVATEC, Tokyo, Japan), and the final volume adjusted to 50 mL with 80% methanol before storage at −20 °C for further analysis.
For TPC measurement, 0.2 mL of the noodle extract was mixed with 1.5 mL of Folin–Ciocalteu reagent (diluted 10×) and oxidized for 5 min. Subsequently, 1.5 mL of a sodium carbonate solution (60 g/L) was added, and the mixture was allowed to neutralize at room temperature for 90 min. The absorbance was measured at 725 nm using a spectrophotometer (X-ma 6100 PC). Gallic acid (Sigma, St. Louis, MO, USA) was used as the standard, and TPC was expressed as milligrams of gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per 100 g of noodles.
For 2,2′-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging activity, 50 μL of the noodle extract and 1.85 mL of diluted ABTS reagent (10 mL of ABTS reagent with approximately 990 mL of distilled water) were mixed. After allowing the reaction to proceed for 30 min at room temperature (t = 30 min), the absorbance was measured at 734 nm, with 80% methanol as the blank. For measuring the absorbance at t = 0 min, 1.85 mL of the diluted ABTS reagent was added to 100 μL of 80% methanol. A standard curve was prepared using Trolox (Sigma), and ABTS scavenging activity was expressed as μL Trolox equivalents (TE)/100 g noodles.

2.10. Statistical Analysis

All data were obtained from at least three replicates. Statistical differences among samples were evaluated using analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) post hoc test to perform pairwise comparisons. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. The analyses were performed using the SPSS Statistics software (version 23.0, SPSS Inc., Armonk, NY, USA).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. AX Content of Wheat Bran

Table 1 lists the AX contents of the three wheat bran samples. The TAX and WEAX contents ranged from 11.15% to 12.19% and 0.10% to 0.14%, respectively, with the highest levels observed in HJ, followed by GS and JM (p < 0.05). The TAX content of wheat bran has been reported to vary widely from 10.9% to 26.0% [30]. By contrast, TAX content extracted from rye bran has been reported at only approximately 4–5% [31].
This variability may be attributed to factors such as cereal variety, growth environment, and climate. Due to high water-holding capacity of AX fractions, AX content may influence the processing and quality of wheat-based products. For bread, WEAX contributes positively to quality, whereas WUAX exerts negative effects [19]. For noodles, WEAX has minimal impact, while WUAX adversely affects quality [22]. Nonetheless, both WEAX and WUAX provide prebiotic benefits as dietary fibers.
Among the AX types, WUAX was identified as the predominant form, whereas WEAX content was substantially lower. This observation is consistent with the known tendency of most AXs in the cell wall to form complexes and strongly associate with cellulose, β-glucan, proteins, and phenolic compounds [32]. Therefore, extraction methods capable of disrupting these structural bonds are essential for efficient AX recovery [33].

3.2. Constituent Sugars in AXs Extracted from Wheat Bran

Table 2 lists the constituent sugars in the AXs. The arabinose-to-xylose (A/X) ratio of the TAX samples ranged from 0.42 to 0.56, falling within the range of 0.17 to 1.37 reported by Kaur et al. [34] for AXs from various wheat bran varieties. Additionally, the A/X ratios of WEAX and WUAX ranged from 0.37 to 0.44 and 0.35 to 0.45, respectively. These A/X ratios are consistent with previously reported values for WEAX (0.17 to 1.37) and WUAX (0.33 to 0.84) [34]. The A/X ratio influences the solubility and extractability of AX. Fractions with a low A/X ratio exhibited poor solubility and extractability in water, likely due to increased aggregation of unsubstituted AX regions stabilized by hydrogen bonds [12]. The small varietal differences in A/X ratio observed in this study suggest relative stability across varieties, possibly due to similar cultivation environments.
Arabinose and xylose were the predominant sugars in AXs, with xylose being the most abundant, as confirmed in the present study. Although the constituent sugars of each AX type showed somewhat mixed trends across wheat varieties, in both HJ and JM, arabinose and xylose contents were higher in the TAX and WUAX fractions than in WEAX, likely reflecting the higher molecular weights of the former. One of the major structural differences between WUAX and WEAX is molecular weight: WUAX typically has a higher molecular weight, while WEAX has a lower one [13]. However, the molecular weights of TAX, WUAX, and WEAX were not determined in this study and should be verified in future research.
Furthermore, the glucose content has previously been reported to range from 3.6–4.1% [35], which is significantly lower than the range of 5.65–30.07% observed in this study. This difference is attributed to variations in de-starching processes, as well as association with β-glucan [36]. De-starching requires the optimization of reaction conditions, such as pH, temperature, and reaction time, during amylase and amyloglucosidase treatments. Additionally, improving glucose removal during ethanol precipitation may be necessary to improve result accuracy, which should be confirmed by future studies.
Although the xylose content was higher in the WUAX fraction than in the WEAX fraction, the overall A/X ratio was nearly identical. However, the functionality and activity of AX can vary independent of the A/X ratio, depending on the type of arabinose substitution (un-, mono-, and di-substituted) on the xylose backbone. Therefore, further investigations using NMR are warranted to elucidate these structural variations and their consequent effects on AX functionality, such as solubility and cross-linking potential with ferulic acids.

3.3. SRC of Wheat Flours with AXs

The water SRC of flour indicates its water-absorption capacity, which is associated with the combined contribution of gluten, damaged starch, and AXs [37]. Figure 2 presents the water SRC values for the flours supplemented with AXs.
Among the AXs derived from the three wheat varieties, WUAX exhibited the highest water SRC, followed by TAX, whereas WEAX showed the lowest SRC (WEAX < TAX < WUAX) in all wheat varieties (p < 0.05). The difference in water SRC among the AX types is likely due to variations in water-absorption capacity resulting from differences in branch chain length. Longer branch chains exhibited higher water retention, leading to increased water SRC values for WUAX. By contrast, the shorter chain length of WEAX resulted in a lower water-retention capacity and a smaller increase in the water SRC values compared with that for WUAX. These results are consistent with those of a recent study by Kim and Kweon [22], who reported that the increase in the water SRC of flour was more pronounced with the addition of commercial WUAX than with commercial WEAX.
TAX, a combination of WUAX and WEAX, showed the second-highest water SRC value, which was primarily influenced by the WUAX component from bran across all wheat varieties. By contrast, WEAX, which is water soluble and has a relatively low molecular weight, exhibited the lowest water-retention capacity. Among the wheat varieties used as bran sources, HJ exhibited the highest water SRC values for both TAX and WUAX but the lowest for WEAX. No significant differences were observed between GS and JM.

3.4. SDS-Sedimentation Volume of Wheat Flours with AXs

Table 3 lists the SDS-sedimentation volumes of wheat flours supplemented with AXs. The qualitative characteristics of flour proteins are strongly correlated with the textural properties of the dough and final products, making them a critical determinant of flour quality [38]. The SDS-sedimentation volume, which reflects the swellability of gluten proteins, serves as a reliable indicator of gluten quality in flour [39]. The SDS test, like SRC technology, relies on energetics (polymer–solvent compatibility) rather than kinetics (mobility constraints of poor plasticizers) [37].
The SDS-sedimentation volume of flour with 2% AXs was not significantly different from that of flour without AXs (p > 0.05), indicating that AX supplementation produced no effect on gluten swellability in SDS–lactic acid solution. Similarly, no significant differences were observed between AX types for each bran source (p > 0.05). These results suggest that AXs have a negligible effect on gluten quality. Among the bran sources, GS showed a slightly higher SDS-sedimentation volume than HJ and JM; however, this value was comparable to that of the control without AXs, further supporting this conclusion. Overall, AXs from various bran sources did not affect the gluten quality based on the SDS-sedimentation volume.

3.5. Dough-Mixing Property of Wheat Flours with AXs

Mixograms (Figure 3) illustrate the effect of 2% AX supplementation on dough development. Unlike SRC or SDS tests, the mixograph measures dough development kinetics with limited solvent use and indicates network formation rates [37]. In the mixograms of flours with added AXs, the dough-mixing curves exhibited a thicker bandwidth using the same amount of water than those of flours without added AXs, indicating that the dough became drier due to competition for water [12,40]. This observation aligns with the increased water-absorption capacity indicated by the water SRC results (Figure 2).
AXs compete with gluten for water absorption in dough, thereby altering water distribution within the gluten matrix and inhibiting gluten network formation. This results in firmer, less extensible dough that is more difficult to handle [26]. However, WEAX competes only moderately with gluten for water, leading to a softer, more viscous, and more ductile dough [41], as demonstrated in the mixograms of flours with added WEAX (Figure 3).
Flours with TAX, WUAX, and WEAX altered the dough characteristics compared with flours without AXs; therefore, AXs are expected to influence noodle-making performance, reflecting the varying effects of AX molecular weight on gluten development. Zhu et al. [42] reported that the molecular weight of WEAX has a variable impact on the gluten structure, with low-molecular-weight WEAX maintaining the left–left conformation of the disulfide bonds in gluten. WEAX, present in the continuous aqueous phase of dough, contributes to viscosity and mobility during mixing and interacts noncovalently with gluten proteins. In contrast, WUAX, with its higher molecular weight and lower solubility, promotes physical entanglement with gluten and starch matrices, tending to form persistent, insoluble networks that mechanically hinder gluten development [43].
In addition, the time required to reach the peak during dough development was significantly affected by the addition of AXs across all bran sources, with a more pronounced effect observed for TAX and WUAX. Contrastingly, the addition of WEAX showed no noticeable effect on dough development time. These findings suggest that WUAX, owing to its high water-absorption capacity, prolongs the time required for gluten formation, thereby delaying dough development. Among the doughs prepared with AXs isolated from various bran sources, the dough containing TAX extracted from GS bran (GS TAX) exhibited the widest peak, whereas the dough with GS WEAX displayed the narrowest peak. This indicates that TAX contributed to a greater gluten strength and more stable dough formation, whereas WEAX resulted in a lower gluten strength and dough stability. Furthermore, AXs from different bran sources had slightly different effects on dough development.

3.6. Texture of Fresh Noodles Supplemented with AXs

Table 4 presents the textural characteristics of fresh noodles, including resistance (R), extensibility (E), and the R/E ratio, prepared with flours containing 2% AXs. The R/E ratio reflects the balance between dough resistance and extensibility [44], and achieving an optimal balance between viscosity and elasticity is essential for well-developed dough [45].
Across all varieties, the WUAX group exhibited the highest resistance (R) and R/E ratio, along with the lowest extensibility (E) values (p < 0.05). This effect is possibly because WUAX is water-insoluble and it exhibits a high water-absorption capacity, competing with gluten for water and inhibiting its development. Notably, in the HJ group, WEAX produced the lowest resistance (0.93 N), whereas WUAX produced the highest resistance (1.27 N). Overall, WEAX consistently resulted in the lowest R values compared with TAX and WUAX, whereas WUAX consistently produced the lowest E and highest R/E values among the three AX types. Higher R/E ratios (WUAX) indicate firmer but less extensible noodles, which may be suitable for dried or instant noodles but less desirable for fresh noodles requiring elasticity. These findings align with those of Frederix et al. [46], who reported that WEAX promotes the formation of small gluten aggregates, enhancing the stability of the gluten network and leading to a more uniform and compact gluten structure. The narrower peaks of WEAX in the mixograms correspond with lower resistance values in Table 4, confirming that WEAX weakens gluten strength and enhances ductility. Overall, AX type influences dough hydration (Figure 3), which directly affects the resistance and extensibility of fresh noodles. Among the wheat varieties, AXs extracted from GS bran showed a higher noodle resistance than those extracted from HJ and JM brans (p < 0.05). GX-TAX (1.20 ± 0.03 N) showed significantly higher resistance than HJ-TAX (1.13 ± 0.03 N) and JM-TAX (1.08 ± 0.03 N). GX-WEAX (1.19 ± 0.03 N) showed significantly higher resistance than HJ-WEAX (0.93 ± 0.03 N) and JM-WEAX (1.08 ± 0.03 N).; however, no significant differences in extensibility were observed. Although the resistance values followed consistent trends, the extensibility trends varied across samples.

3.7. Appearance and Quality of Cooked Noodles with AXs

Figure 4 presents the appearance of the cooked noodles. The addition of AXs resulted in a noticeable increase in the yellowness of cooked noodles, particularly with TAX and WUAX, across all wheat varieties. Each noodle appeared bouncy, smooth, and well-formed, without being mushy. While granular particles were frequently visible in fresh noodles, they became less apparent after cooking, possibly because of the leaching of AXs into the cooking water or structural changes induced by heating.
Table 5 presents the cooking quality of noodles. During noodle preparation, the amount of water added was adjusted according to the water SRC values. Weight gain in cooked noodles is primarily due to starch gelatinization and swelling during cooking [47]. However, among the noodles made from the same flour, WEAX showed the lowest weight gain (0.47–0.48 ΔA h−1 g flour−1) in both GS and JM varieties, whereas TAX showed the highest (0.61–1.01 ΔA h−1 g flour−1) (p < 0.05). This trend may be attributed to the differences in gluten development.
The turbidity of cooking water, which reflects the amount of solid material leached during cooking, is generally associated with damaged starch content and the integrity of the gluten network. Higher levels of damaged starch or weaker gluten structures result in greater leaching. The addition of WUAX, which has a high water-absorption capacity, possibly inhibited gluten formation by reducing the availability of free water and weakening the gluten network. However, because the dough containing WUAX tends to be drier than the other doughs, it exhibits less swelling and reduced leaching of solids during cooking. Consequently, WUAX consistently showed the lowest turbidity across all varieties, whereas TAX exhibited the highest turbidity (1.01 ΔA h−1 g flour−1 in the HJ TAX group) (p < 0.05).
The textural characteristics of cooked noodles showed that the AXs, except for HJ TAX, significantly or slightly reduced the firmness and chewiness across all samples, compared with the control (Table 6). This indicates that AXs generally reduce the firmness and chewiness. Among the AX types, WUAX imparted the highest firmness (14.3–16.5 N), adhesiveness (0.30–0.35 mJ), and chewiness (11.8–14.1 mJ) across all wheat varieties (p < 0.05). This observation aligns with the findings of Frederix et al. [46], who reported that WUAX surrounds proteins and promotes the formation of a stable and uniform gluten network. However, other studies have reported the opposite effect, showing that WUAX can disrupt the textural structure and lead to an undesirable noodle appearance, highlighting its complex and significant impact on dough properties [26].
In comparison, WEAX exhibited the lowest firmness (12.3–12.7 N), adhesiveness (0.23–0.26 mJ), and chewiness (9.9–10.8 mJ) (p < 0.05), consistent with the findings of Arif et al. [48], which suggest that WEAX positively influences dough characteristics and end-use quality. No consistent trend was observed for springiness.
Among the AX types, WEAX had a distinct impact on noodle texture compared to TAX and WUAX, showing a similar trend to that observed in the mixograms (Figure 2). Sensory evaluation of noodle texture, although not performed in the present study, would be valuable for validating the instrumental data and will be considered in future work.

3.8. TPC and Antioxidant Activity of Fresh and Cooked Noodles with AXs

Table 7 presents the TPC and antioxidant activity of fresh and cooked noodles. The TPC of the fresh noodles was approximately twice that of the cooked noodles, indicating the loss of phenolic compounds during cooking. This loss may result from the leaching of free phenolics or the release of bound phenolics into the cooking water, as cell wall structures break down during cooking [49]. Therefore, analyzing both free and bound phenolic compounds would be valuable in future studies. The addition of AXs exhibited inconsistent effects in both fresh and cooked noodles. However, the flour with WEAX produced a slight or significant increase in TPC in both types of noodles, compared with the control (p < 0.05), with the highest values observed in the HJ group (304.0 and 163.5 mg GAE/100 g, respectively). This result suggests that AXs exhibit different antioxidant capabilities depending on the bran source. By contrast, WUAX did not significantly increase the TPC (p > 0.05). In addition, AX type alters gluten structure, which affects water uptake during cooking (Table 5) and the retention of phenolic compounds.
Among all samples, the HJ group with WUAX showed the lowest TPC in both fresh (240.3 mg GAE/100 g) and cooked noodles (122.2 mg GAE/100 g). Additionally, this group exhibited the highest water SRC and resistance in fresh noodles, suggesting that gluten development influences the retention of antioxidant substances.
Arabinose residues in AXs can form additional ester bonds with ferulic acid [50]. This strong antioxidant activity may be attributed to ferulic acid, coumaric acid, or other phenolic compounds [51], which should be confirmed in future work.
Similarly, the antioxidant activity of cooked noodles, as measured using the ABTS radical scavenging activity, was lower than that of fresh noodles, likely because of the reduction in TPC during cooking. Across all brans, WEAX demonstrated the highest antioxidant activity, followed by TAX, whereas WUAX showed the lowest activity. This trend persisted after cooking, with the antioxidant activity consistently ranked as follows: WUAX < TAX < WEAX (p < 0.05).

4. Conclusions

This study aimed to determine how different AX fractions from wheat brans influence dough and noodle quality. AX fractions from three wheat brans (HJ, GS, and JM) significantly influenced flour and noodle quality, depending on the fraction type. WUAX, the dominant fraction, showed the highest water absorption, leading to firmer dough and noodles but reduced visual quality. By contrast, WEAX exhibited a lower water retention but improved dough softness and antioxidant properties. TAX produced intermediate effects on both dough firmness and antioxidant properties.
Although AXs did not impact gluten quality based on SDS-sedimentation volume, they altered dough-mixing behavior and noodle texture through water competition and gluten interactions. The functional effects varied by wheat variety (bran source), emphasizing the importance of selecting suitable AX types and sources to optimize noodle quality and nutritional value.
These results are based on laboratory-scale experiments with three wheat varieties; further validation under industrial processing and sensory evaluation is required. Overall, the findings suggest that the tailored application of specific AX fractions can help optimize the quality and health attributes of wheat-based products. Specially, WUAX may be suited for firmer, chewier noodles; WEAX is preferable for softer, antioxidant-rich products; and TAX offers a balance option for multipurpose applications. Future research should focus on structural characterization of AXs (e.g., substitution patterns) and sensory evaluation to confirm consumer acceptability.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.K.; Data Curation, H.H., B.K. and J.A.; Formal Analysis, H.H., B.K. and J.A.; Funding Acquisition, M.K.; Methodology, H.H., B.K. and J.A.; Supervision, M.K.; Validation, H.H., B.K. and J.A.; Visualization, M.K.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, H.H.; Writing—Review and Editing, M.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean Government (MSIT) (RS-2023-00278255).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

We thank the Carbohydrate Bioproduct Research Center at Sejong University (Seoul, Republic of Korea) for analyzing the constituent sugars in the arabinoxylan samples.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
AXArabinoxylan
TAXTotal arabinoxylan
WEAXWater-extractable arabinoxylan
WUAXWater-unextractable arabinoxylan
SRCSolvent-retention capacity
SDSSodium dodecyl sulfate
TPCTotal phenolic content
ABTS2,2′-Azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid
HPAEC-PADHigh-performance anion-exchange chromatography coupled with pulsed amperometric detection
R/EResistance-to-extensibility ratio
GAEGallic acid equivalents
TETrolox equivalents
ANOVAAnalysis of variance
HSDTukey’s honestly significant difference

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Processes 13 03051 g001
Figure 1. Schematic procedure for the extraction of AX fractions from wheat bran.
Figure 1. Schematic procedure for the extraction of AX fractions from wheat bran.
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Figure 2. Solvent-retention capacity (SRC) in water for the flours supplemented with 2% AXs. Goso (GS), Hojoong (HJ), and Joongmo (JM) are the bran sources for extracting AXs. The different letters above the bars indicate significant difference (p < 0.05) according to Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) test. TAX, total arabinoxylan; WUAX, water unextractable arabinoxylans; WEAX, water extractable arabinoxylans.
Figure 2. Solvent-retention capacity (SRC) in water for the flours supplemented with 2% AXs. Goso (GS), Hojoong (HJ), and Joongmo (JM) are the bran sources for extracting AXs. The different letters above the bars indicate significant difference (p < 0.05) according to Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) test. TAX, total arabinoxylan; WUAX, water unextractable arabinoxylans; WEAX, water extractable arabinoxylans.
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Figure 3. Mixograms of the flours supplemented with 2% AXs with 7.0 g of water. GS, Goso; HJ, Hojoong; JM, Joongmo; TAX, total arabinoxylan; WUAX, water-unextractable arabinoxylan; WEAX, water-extractable arabinoxylan.
Figure 3. Mixograms of the flours supplemented with 2% AXs with 7.0 g of water. GS, Goso; HJ, Hojoong; JM, Joongmo; TAX, total arabinoxylan; WUAX, water-unextractable arabinoxylan; WEAX, water-extractable arabinoxylan.
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Figure 4. Appearance of cooked noodles prepared from the flours supplemented with 2% AXs. GS, Goso; HJ, Hojoong; JM, Joongmo; TAX, total arabinoxylan; WUAX, water-unextractable arabinoxylan; WEAX, water-extractable arabinoxylan.
Figure 4. Appearance of cooked noodles prepared from the flours supplemented with 2% AXs. GS, Goso; HJ, Hojoong; JM, Joongmo; TAX, total arabinoxylan; WUAX, water-unextractable arabinoxylan; WEAX, water-extractable arabinoxylan.
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Table 1. Total arabinoxylan (TAX), water extractable arabinoxylan (WEAX), and water unextractable arabinoxylan (WUAX) contents in the bran of different wheat varieties.
Table 1. Total arabinoxylan (TAX), water extractable arabinoxylan (WEAX), and water unextractable arabinoxylan (WUAX) contents in the bran of different wheat varieties.
Bran SourceContent (%)
TAXWUAXWEAX
GS 11.25 b11.14 b0.11 ab
HJ12.19 c12.05 c0.14 b
JM11.15 a11.04 a0.10 a
Values with the different letters within the same column are significantly different (p < 0.05) according to Tukey’s HSD test. GS, Goso wheat variety; HJ, Hojoong wheat variety; JM, Joongmo wheat variety; TAX, total arabinoxylan; WUAX, water-unextractable arabinoxylan; WEAX, water-extractable arabinoxylan.
Table 2. Constituent sugars in AXs extracted from the bran of different wheat varieties.
Table 2. Constituent sugars in AXs extracted from the bran of different wheat varieties.
Bran SourceExtracted AXRelative Area of Each Sugar (%)
ArabinoseXyloseGlucoseGalactose A/X Ratio
GSTAX 28.0156.1013.022.870.50
WUAX 23.9767.007.071.960.36
WEAX 22.2959.5916.002.120.37
HJTAX 31.3555.519.513.630.56
WUAX 27.0959.6710.852.400.45
WEAX 20.1946.1730.073.570.44
JMTAX 25.7961.859.692.670.42
WUAX 23.8268.435.652.110.35
WEAX 20.5448.1426.804.510.43
GS, Goso wheat variety; HJ, Hojoong wheat variety; JM, Joongmo wheat variety; TAX, total arabinoxylan; WUAX, water-unextractable arabinoxylan; WEAX, water-extractable arabinoxylan; A/X, arabinose to xylose.
Table 3. Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-sedimentation volume of wheat flours with 2% AXs.
Table 3. Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-sedimentation volume of wheat flours with 2% AXs.
Bran SourceAdded AXVolume at Different Sedimentation Time (mL)Slope
20 min40 min60 min
-None71.5 ± 0.7 b62.5 ± 0.7 c56.3 ± 0.4 c0.21
GSTAX70.8 ± 1.8 ab62.0 ± 0.0 bc56.0 ± 0.0 c0.21
WUAX71.3 ± 0.4 b62.3 ± 1.1 c56.3 ± 0.4 c0.21
WEAX71.3 ± 1.1 b61.8 ± 1.1 bc56.0 ± 0.7 c0.21
HJTAX69.5 ± 0.7 a59.8 ± 1.8 a55.3 ± 1.8 bc0.21
WUAX69.8 ± 0.4 ab59.8 ± 0.4 a54.8 ± 0.4 abc0.22
WEAX70.3 ± 0.4 ab60.0 ± 0.0 a54.8 ± 0.4 abc0.22
JMTAX70.3 ± 1.1 ab60.3 ± 0.4 ab54.8 ± 1.1 abc0.22
WUAX69.8 ± 0.4 ab59.3 ± 0.4 a54.0 ± 0.0 ab0.23
WEAX70.5 ± 1.4 ab59.5 ± 0.0 a53.5 ± 0.7 a0.24
Values (Mean ± SD) with different superscript letters within the same column are significantly different (p < 0.05) according to Tukey’s HSD test. GS, Goso wheat variety; HJ, Hojoong wheat variety; JM, Joongmo wheat variety; TAX, total arabinoxylan; WUAX, water-unextractable arabinoxylan; WEAX, water-extractable arabinoxylan.
Table 4. Texture parameters of fresh noodles prepared with flours containing 2% AXs.
Table 4. Texture parameters of fresh noodles prepared with flours containing 2% AXs.
Bran SourceAdded AXWater Addition
(g)		Resistance
(N)		Extensibility
(mm)		R/E
-None32.21.09 ± 0.02 bc6.33 ± 0.09 b0.17
GSTAX34.31.20 ± 0.03 e6.57 ± 0.15 d0.18
WUAX34.61.22 ± 0.07 ef6.36 ± 0.15 b0.19
WEAX33.41.19 ± 0.01 de6.42 ± 0.23 c0.19
HJTAX34.91.13 ± 0.03 bc6.63 ± 0.09 e0.17
WUAX35.21.27 ± 0.03 f6.45 ± 0.14 c0.20
WEAX33.00.93 ± 0.01 a6.60 ± 0.20 de0.14
JMTAX34.11.08 ± 0.01 b6.62 ± 0.26 de0.16
WUAX34.21.14 ± 0.01 cd6.26 ± 0.11 a0.18
WEAX33.71.08 ± 0.01 b6.77 ± 0.14 f0.16
Values (Mean ± SD) with different superscript letters within the same column are significantly different (p < 0.05) according to Tukey’s HSD test. GS, Goso wheat variety; HJ, Hojoong wheat variety; JM, Joongmo wheat variety; TAX, total arabinoxylan; WUAX, water-unextractable arabinoxylan; WEAX, water-extractable arabinoxylan; R/E, resistance to extensibility.
Table 5. Cooking quality of noodles prepared with the flours supplemented with 2% AXs.
Table 5. Cooking quality of noodles prepared with the flours supplemented with 2% AXs.
Bran SourceAdded
AX		Turbidity of Cooked Water
(ΔA h−1 g Flour−1)		Weight Gain
(%)
-None0.42 ± 0.00 ab133.2 ± 0.3 a
GS TAX 0.73 ± 0.01 e147.3 ± 0.2 h
WUAX0.41 ± 0.00 a142.4 ± 4.7 f
WEAX0.47 ± 0.00 c143.6 ± 2.2 g
HJTAX1.01 ± 0.00 f139.7 ± 2.8 c
WUAX0.47 ± 0.01 c138.2 ± 2.8 b
WEAX0.61 ± 0.01 d141.7 ± 0.4 e
JMTAX0.61 ± 0.01 d140.4 ± 0.7 d
WUAX0.43 ± 0.00 b139.6 ± 1.0 c
WEAX0.48 ± 0.01 d138.1 ± 0.9 b
Values (Mean ± SD) with different superscript letters within the same column are significantly different (p < 0.05) according to Tukey’s HSD test. GS, Goso wheat variety; HJ, Hojoong wheat variety; JM, Joongmo wheat variety; TAX, total arabinoxylan; WUAX, water-unextractable arabinoxylan; WEAX, water-extractable arabinoxylan.
Table 6. Textural parameters of the cooked noodles prepared with the flours supplemented with 2% AXs.
Table 6. Textural parameters of the cooked noodles prepared with the flours supplemented with 2% AXs.
Bran SourceAdded
AX		Textural Parameter
Firmness
(N)		Adhesiveness
(mJ)		Springiness
(Ratio)		Chewiness
(mJ)
-None16.1 ± 0.2 h0.31 ± 0.03 e0.88 ± 0.01 d13.1 ± 0.2 g
GSTAX13.9 ± 0.3 c0.28 ± 0.02 d0.86 ± 0.01 bc11.7 ± 0.3 c
WUAX14.3 ± 0.4 e0.30 ± 0.03 e0.84 ± 0.01 a11.8 ± 0.2 c
WEAX12.3 ± 0.7 a0.26 ± 0.02 bc0.85 ± 0.01 ab10.0 ± 0.4 a
HJTAX14.1 ± 0.7 d0.27 ± 0.01 cd0.85 ± 0.01 ab12.1 ± 0.5 d
WUAX16.5 ± 0.4 i0.35 ± 0.02 f0.86 ± 0.01 bc14.1 ± 0.3 h
WEAX12.4 ± 0.3 a0.23 ± 0.02 a0.86 ± 0.01 bc9.9 ± 0.4 a
JMTAX14.5 ± 0.5 f0.28 ± 0.02 d0.85 ± 0.01 ab12.6 ± 0.3 e
WUAX15.2 ± 0.1 g0.31 ± 0.03 e0.87 ± 0.01 cd12.8 ± 0.2 f
WEAX12.7 ± 0.4 b0.25 ± 0.01 b0.88 ± 0.01 d10.8 ± 0.4 b
Values (Mean ± SD) with different superscript letters within the same column are significantly different (p < 0.05) according to Tukey’s HSD test. GS, Goso wheat variety; HJ, Hojoong wheat variety; JM, Joongmo wheat variety; TAX, total arabinoxylan; WUAX, water-unextractable arabinoxylan; WEAX, water-extractable arabinoxylan.
Table 7. Total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity of fresh and cooked noodles prepared with flours supplemented with 2% AXs.
Table 7. Total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity of fresh and cooked noodles prepared with flours supplemented with 2% AXs.
Added AXTPC (mg GAE/100 g)ABTS (mg TE/100 g)
Fresh NoodleCooked NoodleFresh NoodleCooked Noodle
None255.4 ± 2.7 bc126.6 ± 6.2 ab1003.0 ± 8.8 a454.5 ± 3.2 bc
TAX267.3 ± 5.3 de138.4 ± 2.6 de1222.4 ± 18.2 g431.7 ± 9.4 b
GSWUAX255.0 ± 5.2 bc131.0 ± 4.9 bcd1111.1 ± 2.9 cd418.0 ± 8.1 ab
WEAX260.1 ± 5.3 cd127.8 ± 4.8 abc1180.7 ± 9.3 ef484.9 ± 6.0 cd
TAX246.4 ± 2.1 ab127.4 ± 2.7 ab1118.6 ± 16.4 cd523.7 ± 7.5 e
HJWUAX240.3 ± 8.2 a122.2 ± 5.8 a1060.2 ± 24.6 b383.2 ± 21.4 a
WEAX304.0 ± 10.3 f163.5 ± 0.6 f1144.0 ± 11.4 de680.3 ± 23.3 f
TAX260.1 ± 4.4 cd135.1 ± 3.1 cde1086.8 ± 4.8 bc491.9 ± 10.2 de
JMWUAX240.6 ± 3.4 a125.9 ± 3.4 ab1053.2 ± 9.9 b390.7 ± 14.8 a
WEAX278.3 ± 7.1 e140.3 ± 3.4 e1185.5 ± 14.4 fg500.9 ± 4.0 de
Values (Mean ± SD) with different superscript letters within the same column are significantly different (p < 0.05) according to Tukey’s HSD test. GS, Goso wheat variety; HJ, Hojoong wheat variety; JM, Joongmo wheat variety; TAX, total arabinoxylan; WUAX, water-unextractable arabinoxylan; WEAX, water-extractable arabinoxylan; TPC, total phenolic content; ABTS, 2,2′-Azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid.
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Han, H.; Kim, B.; An, J.; Kweon, M. Comparative Effects of Total, Water-Extractable, and Water-Unextractable Arabinoxylans from Wheat Bran on Dough and Noodle Properties. Processes 2025, 13, 3051. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13103051

AMA Style

Han H, Kim B, An J, Kweon M. Comparative Effects of Total, Water-Extractable, and Water-Unextractable Arabinoxylans from Wheat Bran on Dough and Noodle Properties. Processes. 2025; 13(10):3051. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13103051

Chicago/Turabian Style

Han, Hyeonsu, Bomi Kim, Jaeha An, and Meera Kweon. 2025. "Comparative Effects of Total, Water-Extractable, and Water-Unextractable Arabinoxylans from Wheat Bran on Dough and Noodle Properties" Processes 13, no. 10: 3051. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13103051

APA Style

Han, H., Kim, B., An, J., & Kweon, M. (2025). Comparative Effects of Total, Water-Extractable, and Water-Unextractable Arabinoxylans from Wheat Bran on Dough and Noodle Properties. Processes, 13(10), 3051. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13103051

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