Minorities’ Diminished Returns of Parental Educational Attainment on Adolescents’ Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Problems
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Aims
2. Methods
2.1. Design and Settings
2.2. Advantage of the ABCD Study
2.3. Participants and Sampling
2.3.1. Study Variables
2.3.2. Outcome
2.3.3. Moderator
2.3.4. Independent Variable
2.3.5. Confounders
2.4. Data Analysis
2.5. Ethical Aspect
3. Results
3.1. Descriptives
3.2. Unadjusted Bivariate Correlations
3.3. Multivariate Analysis
4. Discussion
5. Limitations
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Role | Type | Measurement | Range | Coding | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age | Confounder | Continuous | 8–11 | - | - | |
Gender | Confounder | Categorical | Observed | 0–1 | Male = 1, Female = 0 | - |
Parental Marital Status | Confounder | Categorical | Parents Report | 0–1 | Married = 1 Other = 0 | - |
Parental Education | Independent Variable | Continuous | Parents Report | 1–21 | 0 = Never attended/Kindergarten only; 1 = 1st grade; 2 = 2nd grade; 3 = 3rd grade; 4 = 4th grade 4; 5 = 5th grade; 6 = 6th grade 6; 7 = 7th grade 7; 8 = 8th grade; 9 = 9th grade; 10 = 10th grade 10; 11 = 11th grade; 12 = 12th grade; 13 = High school graduate; 14 = GED or equivalent Diploma; 15 = Some college; 16 = Associate degree: Occupational; 17 = Associate degree: Academic Program; 18 = Bachelor’s degree (ex. BA; 19 = Master’s degree (ex. MA; 20 = Professional School degree (ex. MD; 21 = Doctoral degree. | - |
CBCL-anxious and depressed mood | Dependent Variable | Continuous | Parent Report | 0–26 | Items Responses: 0, 1, 2 | CBCL [2] |
CBCL-withdrawn and depressed affect | Dependent Variable | Continuous | Parent Report | 0–14 | Items Responses: 0, 1, 2 | CBCL [2] |
CBCL-social and interpersonal problems | Dependent Variable | Continuous | Parent Report | 0–16 | Items Responses: 0, 1, 2 | CBCL [2] |
CBCL-somatic complaints | Dependent Variable | Continuous | Parent Report | 0–18 | Items Responses: 0, 1, 2 | CBCL [2] |
CBCL-thought problems | Dependent Variable | Continuous | Parent Report | 0–18 | Items Responses: 0, 1, 2 | CBCL [2] |
CBCL-attention problems | Dependent Variable | Continuous | Parent Report | 0–20 | Items Responses: 0, 1, 2 | CBCL [2] |
CBCL-violent and aggressive behaviors | Dependent Variable | Continuous | Parent Report | 0–38 | Items Responses: 0, 1, 2 | CBCL [2] |
CBCL-rule-breaking behaviors | Dependent Variable | Continuous | Parent Report | 0–38 | Items Responses: 0, 1, 2 | CBCL [2] |
All (n = 10,762) | ||
---|---|---|
n | % | |
Race | ||
Whites | 8257 | 76.7 |
Blacks | 2506 | 23.3 |
Ethnicity | ||
Non-Hispanic | 9006 | 83.7 |
Hispanic | 1757 | 16.3 |
Gender | 5137 | 47.7 |
Male | 5626 | 52.3 |
Female | ||
Parental Marital Status | 3442 | 32.0 |
Other | 7321 | 68.0 |
Married | ||
Mean | SD | |
Age (Year) | 9.48 | 0.51 |
Parental Education | 16.74 | 2.60 |
CBCL-Anxious and depressed mood (0–26) | 2.71 | 3.17 |
CBCL-Withdrawn and depressed affect(0–14) | 1.05 | 1.72 |
CBCL-Somatic complaints(0–16) | 1.48 | 1.94 |
CBCL-Social and interpersonal problems(0–18) | 1.61 | 2.28 |
CBCL-Thought problems(0–18) | 1.65 | 2.23 |
CBCL-Rule-breaking behaviors (0–20) | 1.23 | 1.89 |
CBCL-Attention problems (0–38) | 5.49 | 5.47 |
CBCL-Violent and aggressive behaviors (0–38) | 3.45 | 4.55 |
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 Race (African American) | 1 | −0.12 * | −0.02 * | −0.41 * | −0.28 * | −0.04 * | 0.04 * | 0.00 | 0.09 * | −0.01 | 0.14 * | 0.04 * | 0.06 * |
2 Ethnicity (Hispanic) | 1 | −0.00 | −0.08 * | −0.23 * | 0.02 | 0.03 * | 0.02 * | 0.02 * | −0.02 | −0.00 | 0.02 | 0.00 | |
3 Gender (Male) | 1 | 0.01 | −0.00 | 0.02 * | 0.05 * | −0.03 * | 0.05 * | 0.10 * | 0.12 * | 0.016 * | 0.10 * | ||
4 Parental Marital Status (Married) | 1 | 0.36 * | −0.04 * | −0.10 * | −0.07 * | −0.14 * | −0.06 * | −0.18 * | −0.12 * | −0.13 * | |||
5 Parental Education (Years) | 1 | −0.00 | −0.10 * | −0.04 * | −0.13 * | −0.05 * | −0.17 * | −0.08 * | −0.10 * | ||||
6 Anxious and depressed mood, | 1 | 0.58 * | 0.47 * | 0.62 * | 0.60 * | 0.41 * | 0.57 * | 0.58 * | |||||
7 Withdrawn and depressed affect | 1 | 0.39 * | 0.56 * | 0.51 * | 0.39 * | 0.49 * | 0.52 * | ||||||
8 Somatic complaints | 1 | 0.42 * | 0.44 * | 0.28 * | 0.44 * | 0.39 * | |||||||
9 Social and interpersonal problems | 1 | 0.61 * | 0.55 * | 0.69 * | 0.67 * | ||||||||
10 Thought problems | 1 | 0.51 * | 0.73 * | 0.63 * | |||||||||
11 Rule−breaking behaviors | 1 | 0.65 * | 0.73 * | ||||||||||
12 Attention problems | 1 | 0.76 * | |||||||||||
13 Violent and aggressive behaviors. | 1 |
B | SE | 95% CI | p | B | SE | 95% CI | p | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Anxious and depressed mood | ||||||||||
Race (Black) | −0.51 | 0.08 | −0.67 | −0.34 | <0.001 | −2.91 | 0.49 | −3.87 | −1.95 | <0.001 |
Ethnicity (Hispanic) | 0.04 | 0.09 | −0.13 | 0.21 | 0.677 | −1.55 | 0.47 | −2.47 | −0.62 | 0.001 |
Gender (Male) | 0.12 | 0.06 | 0.00 | 0.24 | 0.049 | 0.11 | 0.06 | 0.00 | 0.23 | 0.060 |
Age | −0.07 | 0.06 | −0.19 | 0.05 | 0.226 | −0.08 | 0.06 | −0.20 | 0.04 | 0.190 |
Parental Marital Status (Married) | −0.47 | 0.07 | −0.61 | −0.32 | <0.001 | −0.47 | 0.07 | −0.62 | −0.33 | <0.001 |
Parental Educational Attainment | 0.01 | 0.01 | −0.02 | 0.03 | 0.643 | −0.06 | 0.02 | −0.10 | −0.03 | 0.001 |
Parental Educational Attainment × Race | - | - | - | - | - | 0.15 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.21 | 0.000 |
Parental Educational Attainment × Ethnicity | - | - | - | - | - | 0.09 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.15 | 0.001 |
Withdrawn and depressed affect | ||||||||||
Race (Black) | −0.06 | 0.04 | −0.15 | 0.03 | 0.176 | −0.56 | 0.27 | −1.08 | −0.04 | 0.034 |
Ethnicity (Hispanic) | 0.05 | 0.05 | −0.05 | 0.14 | 0.328 | −0.10 | 0.25 | −0.60 | 0.40 | 0.696 |
Gender (Male) | 0.19 | 0.03 | 0.12 | 0.25 | <0.001 | 0.18 | 0.03 | 0.12 | 0.25 | 0.000 |
Age | 0.09 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.16 | 0.005 | 0.09 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.15 | 0.005 |
Parental Marital Status (Married) | −0.31 | 0.04 | −0.39 | −0.23 | <0.001 | −0.31 | 0.04 | −0.39 | −0.23 | <0.001 |
Parental Educational Attainment | −0.05 | 0.01 | −0.06 | −0.04 | <0.001 | −0.06 | 0.01 | −0.08 | −0.04 | 0.000 |
Parental Educational Attainment × Race | - | - | - | - | - | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.06 | 0.050 |
Parental Educational Attainment × Ethnicity | - | - | - | - | - | 0.01 | 0.02 | −0.02 | 0.04 | 0.606 |
Somatic complaints | ||||||||||
Race (Black) | −0.16 | 0.05 | −0.26 | −0.06 | 0.001 | −2.00 | 0.30 | −2.59 | −1.42 | <0.001 |
Ethnicity (Hispanic) | 0.05 | 0.05 | −0.06 | 0.15 | 0.383 | −0.72 | 0.29 | −1.28 | −0.15 | 0.013 |
Gender (Male) | −0.13 | 0.04 | −0.20 | −0.06 | 0.001 | −0.13 | 0.04 | −0.21 | −0.06 | <0.001 |
Age | 0.03 | 0.04 | −0.04 | 0.11 | 0.345 | 0.03 | 0.04 | −0.04 | 0.10 | 0.415 |
Parental Marital Status (Married) | −0.33 | 0.05 | −0.42 | −0.24 | <0.001 | −0.34 | 0.05 | −0.43 | −0.25 | <0.001 |
Parental Educational Attainment | −0.02 | 0.01 | −0.03 | 0.00 | 0.031 | −0.06 | 0.01 | −0.08 | −0.04 | <0.001 |
Parental Educational Attainment × Race | - | - | - | - | - | 0.11 | 0.02 | 0.08 | 0.15 | <0.001 |
Parental Educational Attainment × Ethnicity | - | - | - | - | - | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.08 | 0.013 |
Social and interpersonal problems | ||||||||||
Race (Black) | 0.11 | 0.06 | 0.00 | 0.22 | 0.059 | −1.52 | 0.35 | −2.21 | −0.84 | <0.001 |
Ethnicity (Hispanic) | −0.01 | 0.06 | −0.13 | 0.11 | 0.868 | −1.27 | 0.34 | −1.93 | −0.62 | <0.001 |
Gender (Male) | 0.25 | 0.04 | 0.16 | 0.33 | <0.001 | 0.24 | 0.04 | 0.16 | 0.33 | <0.001 |
Age | −0.13 | 0.04 | −0.22 | −0.05 | 0.002 | −0.14 | 0.04 | −0.22 | −0.05 | 0.002 |
Parental Marital Status (Married) | −0.50 | 0.05 | −0.60 | −0.40 | <0.001 | −0.50 | 0.05 | −0.61 | −0.40 | <0.001 |
Parental Educational Attainment | −0.08 | 0.01 | −0.09 | −0.06 | <0.001 | −0.13 | 0.01 | −0.15 | −0.10 | <0.001 |
Parental Educational Attainment × Race | - | - | - | - | - | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.14 | <0.001 |
Parental Educational Attainment × Ethnicity | - | - | - | - | - | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.12 | <0.001 |
Thought problems | ||||||||||
Race (Black) | −0.24 | 0.06 | −0.35 | −0.13 | <0.001 | −1.17 | 0.34 | −1.84 | −0.49 | 0.001 |
Ethnicity (Hispanic) | −0.23 | 0.06 | −0.35 | −0.12 | <0.001 | −2.13 | 0.33 | −2.78 | −1.49 | <0.001 |
Gender (Male) | 0.45 | 0.04 | 0.37 | 0.53 | <0.001 | 0.45 | 0.04 | 0.36 | 0.53 | <0.001 |
Age | −0.04 | 0.04 | −0.12 | 0.04 | 0.354 | −0.04 | 0.04 | −0.12 | 0.04 | 0.338 |
Parental Marital Status (Married) | −0.29 | 0.05 | −0.39 | −0.19 | <0.001 | −0.28 | 0.05 | −0.39 | −0.18 | <0.001 |
Parental Educational Attainment | −0.04 | 0.01 | −0.06 | −0.03 | <0.001 | −0.09 | 0.01 | −0.12 | −0.07 | <0.001 |
Parental Educational Attainment × Race | - | - | - | - | - | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.09 | 0.011 |
Parental Educational Attainment × Ethnicity | - | - | - | - | - | 0.12 | 0.02 | 0.08 | 0.16 | <0.001 |
Rule−breaking behaviors | ||||||||||
Race (Black) | 0.25 | 0.05 | 0.16 | 0.34 | <0.001 | −0.64 | 0.28 | −1.20 | −0.08 | 0.025 |
Ethnicity (Hispanic) | −0.15 | 0.05 | −0.25 | −0.05 | 0.002 | −1.60 | 0.27 | −2.13 | −1.06 | <0.001 |
Gender (Male) | 0.44 | 0.04 | 0.37 | 0.51 | <0.001 | 0.44 | 0.04 | 0.37 | 0.51 | <0.001 |
Age | −0.07 | 0.03 | −0.13 | 0.00 | 0.057 | −0.07 | 0.03 | −0.14 | 0.00 | 0.051 |
Parental Marital Status (Married) | −0.49 | 0.04 | −0.57 | −0.41 | <0.001 | −0.48 | 0.04 | −0.57 | −0.40 | <0.001 |
Parental Educational Attainment | −0.08 | 0.01 | −0.10 | −0.07 | <0.001 | −0.13 | 0.01 | −0.15 | −0.10 | <0.001 |
Parental Educational Attainment × Race | - | - | - | - | - | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.09 | 0.003 |
Parental Educational Attainment × Ethnicity | - | - | - | - | - | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.12 | 0.000 |
Attention problems | ||||||||||
Race (Black) | −0.14 | 0.14 | −0.41 | 0.13 | 0.308 | −4.24 | 0.83 | −5.87 | −2.62 | <0.001 |
Ethnicity (Hispanic) | −0.05 | 0.15 | −0.34 | 0.24 | 0.725 | −4.84 | 0.80 | −6.40 | −3.28 | <0.001 |
Gender (Male) | 1.79 | 0.10 | 1.59 | 2.00 | <0.001 | 1.78 | 0.10 | 1.58 | 1.98 | <0.001 |
Age | −0.37 | 0.10 | −0.57 | −0.17 | <0.001 | −0.38 | 0.10 | −0.58 | −0.18 | <0.001 |
Parental Marital Status (Married) | −1.28 | 0.13 | −1.53 | −1.03 | <0.001 | −1.27 | 0.13 | −1.52 | −1.03 | <0.001 |
Parental Educational Attainment | −0.10 | 0.02 | −0.14 | −0.05 | <0.001 | −0.26 | 0.03 | −0.32 | −0.19 | <0.001 |
Parental Educational Attainment × Race | - | - | - | - | - | 0.25 | 0.05 | 0.15 | 0.35 | <0.001 |
Parental Educational Attainment × Ethnicity | - | - | - | - | - | 0.29 | 0.05 | 0.20 | 0.39 | <0.001 |
Violent and aggressive behaviors | ||||||||||
Race (Black) | −0.08 | 0.12 | −0.31 | 0.14 | 0.463 | −2.15 | 0.69 | −3.51 | −0.79 | 0.002 |
Ethnicity (Hispanic) | −0.26 | 0.12 | −0.50 | −0.02 | 0.033 | −2.99 | 0.67 | −4.30 | −1.68 | <0.001 |
Gender (Male) | 0.96 | 0.09 | 0.79 | 1.13 | <0.001 | 0.95 | 0.09 | 0.78 | 1.12 | <0.001 |
Age | −0.23 | 0.09 | −0.39 | −0.06 | 0.007 | −0.23 | 0.09 | −0.40 | −0.07 | 0.006 |
Parental Marital Status (Married) | −1.06 | 0.11 | −1.27 | −0.85 | <0.001 | −1.05 | 0.11 | −1.26 | −0.85 | <0.001 |
Parental Educational Attainment | −0.12 | 0.02 | −0.16 | −0.09 | <0.001 | −0.21 | 0.03 | −0.26 | −0.16 | <0.001 |
Parental Educational Attainment × Race | - | - | - | - | - | 0.12 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.21 | 0.004 |
Parental Educational Attainment × Ethnicity | - | - | - | - | - | 0.17 | 0.04 | 0.09 | 0.25 | <0.001 |
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Assari, S.; Boyce, S.; Caldwell, C.H.; Bazargan, M. Minorities’ Diminished Returns of Parental Educational Attainment on Adolescents’ Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Problems. Children 2020, 7, 49. https://doi.org/10.3390/children7050049
Assari S, Boyce S, Caldwell CH, Bazargan M. Minorities’ Diminished Returns of Parental Educational Attainment on Adolescents’ Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Problems. Children. 2020; 7(5):49. https://doi.org/10.3390/children7050049
Chicago/Turabian StyleAssari, Shervin, Shanika Boyce, Cleopatra H. Caldwell, and Mohsen Bazargan. 2020. "Minorities’ Diminished Returns of Parental Educational Attainment on Adolescents’ Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Problems" Children 7, no. 5: 49. https://doi.org/10.3390/children7050049