Motivations to Engage in Sustainability: Exploring Future Primary Teachers’ Perceptions in Spain

Abstract

Sustainability is a key competence in Spanish higher education and a central axis in initial teacher training. However, future teachers’ motivations have received limited attention. Using a mixed-methods approach, this study analyses the self-perception of knowledge, motivations, and opportunities for sustainability among first and fourth-year students of the bachelor’s degree in primary education at two Spanish universities. The quantitative phase included distributing a Likert-type questionnaire to 396 students, with scales validated through exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, while the qualitative phase was developed through 12 semi-structured interviews analysed via thematic analysis. The results show a high perception of conceptual knowledge, especially among final-year students, as well as a partial and predominantly environmental understanding of sustainability. With respect to motivations, intrinsic and transcendent motivation, linked to personal satisfaction and a commitment to the common good, stand out, while extrinsic and collective motivation carry less weight. Likewise, the participants identify numerous institutional and community opportunities for sustainability, although they recognise that leading a consumerist lifestyle is a major barrier. The findings reveal significant educational tensions in sustainability.

1. Introduction

Sustainability has established itself as one of the main global challenges of the 21st century. Achieving the sustainable development goals (SDGs) requires a profound change in ways of thinking, acting, and educating. In this context, education could play an important role, as it appears to be one of the most effective ways to foster environmental awareness and promote sustainable behaviours from an early age (Gorski et al., 2023; Leal Filho et al., 2021; UNESCO, 2014).

In Spain, the commitment to sustainability is reflected in Royal decree 822/2021, which requires higher education (HE) institutions to incorporate contents, competences, and skills related to sustainable development into their training programmes. In recent years, this regulatory rule has driven a process of “greening” the curriculum, among other initiatives, to incorporate sustainability competences into different curricula (BOE, 2021).

Future teachers—especially those enrolled in early childhood and primary education degrees—are expected to receive solid training in sustainability during their university studies. They may therefore have the potential to become agents of change capable of integrating these contents, skills, and attitudes into their future educational practice. However, despite regulatory progress and efforts to include sustainability and the SDGs in curricula, significant challenges persist. Various reports indicate that numerous in-service teachers still feel insecure regarding certain topics related to sustainability (Albion et al., 2025; UNESCO, 2022c), and pre-service teachers, although they acknowledge possessing greater knowledge, maintain behaviours that are inconsistent with said values (Leal Filho et al., 2025).

A possible way to encourage bigger changes in sustainable attitudes and behaviours could lie in the motivation to engage in sustainability and its education, as it can increase the strength of intention and behaviour (Griswold et al., 2018) along with the adherence, implementation, and innovation of what is learnt (Juma-Michilena et al., 2023; Sánchez-Bolívar & Martínez-Martínez, 2022). Furthermore, understanding the different types of motivation that encourage future teachers to adopt more sustainable practices could be the key to strengthening their commitment.

A review of the literature reveals a gap in this field: few studies have been found on the types of motivation that future primary education teachers claim to possess for sustainability and its teaching, and which ones they consider to be the most important for that purpose. To date, research predominantly focuses on the origin of motivation or change after completing a course (Corres et al., 2024; Juma-Michilena et al., 2023; Mulder et al., 2015; Sánchez-Santamaría et al., 2021).

Exploring the knowledge, motivations, and opportunities regarding sustainability that future teachers self-perceive can contribute to identifying educational strengths and weaknesses. Taking this empirical evidence into account, curricula can be better oriented towards the development of teaching competences in sustainability. Factors that enhance the type of motivation towards sustainability, building on recognised opportunities, and addressing inconsistencies, both in knowledge and behaviour, should be integrated into training programmes. Future generations of educators could hence lead the transition towards a more just and sustainable society.

Within this framework, this study aims to: (1) determine the perception of knowledge of sustainability held by first- and final-year students of the degree in primary education at two Spanish universities; (2) identify the types of motivation towards sustainability they claim to possess; and (3) explore the opportunities they perceive in their environment to act sustainably, as well as the differences in responses depending on socio-demographic traits.

Given the exploratory nature of self-perception and the convergent mixed-methods design of this study, the methodology combined a quantitative approach using a questionnaire and a qualitative approach, conducting semi-structured interviews. This design allowed exploring the future teachers’ perceptions and experiences, triangulating the results to obtain a more complete understanding of the phenomenon studied.

2. Theoretical Framework

Education has been defined by UNESCO as the primary vehicle for demonstrating the importance of sustainability and promoting a commitment to sustainable lifestyles and the SDGs to future generations (UNESCO, 2014, 2017, 2020). Several authors recognise the potential and fundamental role of education in sharing knowledge, fostering reflection, promoting values, stimulating responsible behaviour, and seeking solutions to planetary problems (Gorski et al., 2023; Leal Filho et al., 2021).

In order to strengthen the role education can play in promoting sustainability, various research projects have been developed across different fields and dimensions of the educational process. Some studies have focused on analysing the extent to which sustainability is incorporated in the curriculum at different educational levels, from pre-school to university, in both formal and non-formal contexts (Fernández Morilla et al., 2015; Gutiérrez et al., 2006; Segalàs & Sánchez Carracedo, 2019; Solís-Espallargas et al., 2019; UNESCO, 2014, 2020).

Other research has analysed sustainability competences for both teachers and students (Valderrama-Hernández et al., 2025; Scherak & Rieckmann, 2020; Barth et al., 2007). Yet other studies have examined how competences have been integrated into the Spanish university curriculum (Sánchez-Carracedo et al., 2022a, 2022b) and which methodologies promote their development (Brundiers et al., 2021; Cebrián et al., 2020; Leal Filho et al., 2025; Rieckmann, 2012; Wiek et al., 2014).

An increase in research aimed at promoting local initiatives and projects, considering the specific needs of each country or community, has been observed in recent years. Themes linked to sustainability, as well as the conditions of the educational system, differ across regions. Therefore, to foster more appropriate solutions, it is necessary to consider the realities of teachers, students, and communities, adapting approaches in accordance with local possibilities and needs (UNESCO & Monitoring and Sustainability Education Research Institute, University of Saskatchewan, 2024).

In all the initiatives mentioned, the role of teachers is fundamental, as they are expected to act as agents of change, capable of promoting transformations in both educational institutions and communities to advance towards a more sustainable world (Albion et al., 2025; Robinson et al., 2022). Along these lines, UNESCO (2022b) stresses teachers are key to achieving the SDGs, given that their motivation is essential for adopting these goals, and their teaching competences ensure their effective integration into educational practice. Although there are multiple training opportunities in sustainability for both in-service and pre-service teachers, many teachers express the need for more comprehensive preparation, as they feel insecure when transmitting certain content (Albion et al., 2025; UNESCO, 2022a).

Added to the above, from an attitudinal perspective, certain studies conclude that some teachers show limited interest or motivation due to insufficient awareness of the importance of integrating the SDGs into teaching (Blanco-Portela et al., 2018; Leal Filho et al., 2019; UNESCO, 2022d).

There is a broad consensus on the need to support teachers in developing the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required to develop sustainability competences, as well as in adopting the most appropriate teaching methodologies. However, motivation is also a critical element (UNESCO, 2022a). Without this driving force, teachers are unable to inspire students—the future agents of change—to understand sustainability, adopt consistent behaviours, and commit to the required environmental, social, and economic transition. The effectiveness of their teaching does not only depend on their knowledge of the content, but also on their motivation, on the opportunities available, and on the potential barriers they perceive in their environment regarding education for sustainability (EfS) (Griswold et al., 2018; Mulder et al., 2015; Sánchez-Santamaría et al., 2021; UNESCO, 2022a, 2022c).

Furthermore, as some studies conclude, it has been proven that students need to receive the necessary knowledge, skills, and motivation at universities or HE institutions to understand and address sustainability and the SDGs (Corres et al., 2024; Mulder et al., 2015; UNESCO, 2022b).

In Spain, integrating sustainability into HE is not merely an international recommendation, but a regulatory rule. Order ECI/3857/2007, which regulates the degree in primary education, established the need for future teachers to understand the relationship between education and a sustainable future. This framework has been reinforced by the conference of rectors of Spanish universities (CRUE, 2012), whose guidelines for integrating sustainability into the curriculum have guided the inclusion of cross-curricular competences in study programmes. More recently, Royal Decree 822/2021 consolidated this commitment by requiring university degrees to incorporate sustainability and climate change as cross-curricular principles (BOE, 2021). These legal frameworks converge with the European GreenComp Framework, establishing a scenario where students are expected to acquire not only technical knowledge, but also the attitude and motivation necessary to act as agents of change (Bianchi et al., 2022).

It is therefore crucial to analyse pre-service teachers’ perceptions regarding their knowledge, motivations, and opportunities linked to EfS. Future teachers constitute a bridge between the education received at school and that acquired at university. Their perspectives may therefore provide valuable guidance. Their responses enable identifying strengths that should be enhanced to promote a greater commitment to sustainability. They also allow observing weaknesses that could be addressed by revising both school and university curricula. Likewise, these findings can contribute to reorienting the ongoing professional development of in-service teachers, reinforcing those aspects that stimulate involvement in environmental care and the opportunities they mention for sustainability training.

The variables analysed in this study, based on student self-perception, are presented below: (Section 2.1) knowledge, (Section 2.2) motivation (including its different types: extrinsic, intrinsic, collective, and transcendent), and (Section 2.3) opportunities for sustainability and EfS.

2.1. Knowledge

Knowledge about sustainability begins with the ability to define the concept, which several authors consider complex, overly abstract, and broad (Bianchi et al., 2022; Blanco-Portela et al., 2018; Leal Filho, 2009). Furthermore, as it is related to almost all disciplines of knowledge, some authors maintain there is still no consensus on its meaning (Zúñiga-Sánchez, 2021).

In addition to the difficulties in defining sustainability and EfS, some studies advocate for an integral view of sustainability, which rests on three intertwined pillars (environmental, economic, and social), while others focus on a single aspect, generally the environmental pillar. These views are present in both pre-service and in-service teachers, and in the curricula of all educational levels. It is hence not surprising that in the survey conducted by UNESCO and Education International with over 58,000 teachers from different countries, only one third of the participants stated they feel prepared to address issues related to EfS (UNESCO, 2022c).

2.2. Motivations

In this study, motivation is understood as defined by Ruiz Martín (2021): the emotional force or impulse that leads to initiating or maintaining a behaviour towards a specific goal. This impulse can be of different types, depending on the origin of the driving force: extrinsic, intrinsic, collective, or transcendent motivation. This classification reflects the conceptual approaches that differentiate the underlying reasons why a person is motivated.

Extrinsic motivation is the impulse or force to act that the subject receives or finds outside of themselves. This may include the consequences of the action, such as rewards, incentives, punishments, or the instrumental value of the behaviour (Ryan & Deci, 2020).

Intrinsic motivation resides within the person and exists when there is an internal value that drives the human being to act (Ruiz Martín, 2021). Some refer to intrinsic motivation as the degree of involvement in something arising from curiosity or personal interest (Juma-Michilena et al., 2023).

Collective motivation is related to a group of people that moves an individual to perform certain actions. The impulse for action is the well-being of belonging to a specific social or cultural group, etc. Sustainability and EfS require a response to complex issues that can only be solved through coordinated action (Wang et al., 2022). For this reason, collective motivation has recently been incorporated as an important element in pro-environmental behaviour. Research has shown that it can foster this type of behaviour and serve to secure individual support for the ecological transformation of societies (Marder et al., 2023).

The concept of transcendent motivation is more recent and is understood as the type of force that leads people to act because of the utility—the consequences—of their actions for another person or persons (Pérez-López, 1997, p. 18). It seeks the prosperity of others and is therefore generally related to altruism. In this research, transcendent motivation was incorporated as a profound force necessary for behavioural change, related to social justice and the common good, such as sustainability (Francisco, 2015, n. 15, 200 and 211; Howell & Allen, 2019).

In education, a teacher’s motivation for what they teach is an important aspect, as it allows them to bring what appears in the curricula into the classroom and transmit an interest in learning content or developing certain skills to their students (Batlle, 2013; García-Fortes et al., 2025; UNESCO, 2022b). According to Ruiz Martín (2021), the brain is sensitive to the emotional component that accompanies the behaviours of peers. As a result, when a teacher shows passion during the teaching-learning process, the emotion generated is contagious and can spark curiosity and fascination in students. Education needs to be able to motivate students to become involved in their teaching-learning process (Sánchez-Bolívar & Martínez-Martínez, 2022) and to promote the conviction that their actions can influence the future of the planet (Skamp et al., 2013).

As motivation is a dynamic phenomenon that may vary in type (extrinsic, collective, intrinsic, or transcendent) and intensity (none, little, or much), it is important to consider it in every educational process to activate and promote the most appropriate kind (Uysal, 2023).

Despite the fact that international organisations such as UNESCO (2017, 2022d) stress that motivation is the engine for teachers to assume leadership of the SDGs, there is a lack of conceptual frameworks that implement this construct in teacher training. Current literature either tends to treat motivation as a generic element within sustainability competences (Barth et al., 2007), or limits itself to pointing out its absence as a barrier (Scherak & Rieckmann, 2020). Previous research in HE has explored instrumental motivations, such as improving the curriculum or acquiring experience (Mulder et al., 2015), or motivations linked to previous life experiences (Corres et al., 2024). However, a gap persists in the classification of the impulses that drive future primary education teachers.

2.3. Opportunities

Opportunities refer primarily to what could promote sustainability through certain individual behaviours, community initiatives, or educational and institutional styles (Sánchez-Carracedo et al., 2021). They could be described as the “other side of the coin” of what various papers indicate as barriers to sustainability (Albareda-Tiana et al., 2017; Blanco-Portela et al., 2018; Guerenabarrena-Cortazar et al., 2021).

With regard to individual opportunities, this study only considered a less consumerist personal lifestyle. With respect to opportunities related to community initiatives, the value given to those carried out by groups of people and the use of social networks to stay informed about them was analysed. As for opportunities in educational styles, elements related to student-centred learning, subjects that incorporate sustainability, and extracurricular activities were considered (UNESCO, 2022c). Regarding institutional opportunities, Timm and Barth (2021) suggested developing a general structure favourable to sustainability, with facilities and staff that provide support; a rector or director who encourages activities for EfS and fosters collaboration with other academic institutions.

Seizing these opportunities in universities would equip future teachers with the necessary tools to achieve sustainability in their training (Blanco-Portela et al., 2018). Beyond the individual and institutional levels, this also represents a contribution to educating future decision-makers so that they may contribute to a more sustainable future through policy and legislation (Barth & Rieckmann, 2012).

The literature review conducted reveals that, although there is an increase in studies on sustainability in HE, there is a lack of research on future primary education teachers’ perceptions of knowledge, motivations, and opportunities for sustainability and EfS. This is important for identifying the factors that promote or hinder their involvement in promoting sustainable knowledge, values, and practices in their future role as teachers. This has to be considered in both their training and in public policy design.

This research enables the identification of gaps in the training of future teachers with respect to sustainability. It can also provide guidelines to strengthen the factors that motivate them towards achieving EfS. This is vital, as the integration of the SDGs and sustainability in Spanish university degrees has been the focus of recent analysis and research, and robust empirical information is required to support and improve current efforts.

Furthermore, this is a novel study that explores primary education degree students’ perceptions of their knowledge, motivations, and opportunities regarding sustainability. The results are valuable for recognising students’ understanding of the concept of sustainability, where they have learnt it, and which main behaviours they associate it with.

3. Methods and Materials

3.1. Methods

A convergent mixed-methods design oriented towards data triangulation was employed. The qualitative findings derived from semi-structured interviews were contrasted with the statistical results from a Likert-type scale to turn them into a comprehensive interpretation. This enhanced the understanding of the variables and strengthened the internal validity of the study.

3.2. Instruments

• Likert-type scale

A questionnaire was developed using a 5-point Likert-type scale to analyse first- and fourth-year primary education students’ perceptions of their knowledge, motivations, and opportunities regarding sustainability and EfS. The Likert-type scale response options range from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.”

The scale consists of a personal information section and three dimensions: knowledge, motivations, and opportunities, each containing a different number of items. The references used for writing the statements are shown below.

Concept	No. of Items	References Used
Personal information	8
Knowledge	2	Azapagic et al. (2005) Aznar Minguet et al. (2017) Gutiérrez-Mijares and Pellegrini-Blanco (2023)
Motivations	9	Marques et al. (2023) Ferlazzo (2023) Pérez-López (1997) Ruiz Martín (2021)
Opportunities	9	Valderrama-Hernández et al. (2020) Ávila et al. (2017)

The questionnaire content was validated by six experts in HE, all of whom are teachers at various Spanish universities. Two of them are members of the university teaching working group of the Crue-Sustainability sectoral commission. Through a self-administered online form, they evaluated the clarity, pertinence, and relevance of each item. They also made comments aimed at improving the wording of the statements, justifying the ratings, or suggesting modifications.

Initially, 10 items on knowledge, 12 on motivations, and 10 on opportunities for HE were presented. Based on the suggestions received, the statements regarding knowledge increased to 11. Motivations were reduced to 10, and opportunities remained at 10. Adjustments were made to the wording of the statements to improve clarity and understanding.

Following the content validation process, the scale was administered to primary education degree students at two universities in Spain. Based on these data, an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted. The results enabled establishing the final dimensions of each construct by eliminating certain items from each dimension.

Table 1. Cronbach’s alpha for final scales.

Dimension	No. of Items	Cronbach’s Alpha
Knowledge	2	0.799
Extrinsic motivation	2	0.609
Collective motivation	2	0.666
Intrinsic motivation	2	0.762
Transcendent motivation	3	0.639
Opportunities	9	0.859

presents the internal consistency of the resulting dimensions, demonstrating acceptable to good reliability levels, with Cronbach’s alpha values ranging between 0.609 and 0.859.

To assess data suitability for EFA across the three scales—knowledge, motivations, and opportunities—the KMO index and Bartlett’s test of sphericity were applied. In the knowledge scale, the KMO index was 0.63, indicating acceptable sampling adequacy, and Bartlett’s test was significant, χ²(55) = 644.14, p < 0.001, confirming that the correlations between variables are sufficient for EFA. In the motivations scale, the KMO reached a value of 0.79, considered meritorious, while Bartlett’s test was equally significant, χ²(45) = 950.39, p < 0.001, supporting the pertinence of the analysis. Finally, in the opportunities scale, the global KMO was 0.89, considered meritorious, indicating a highly adequate correlation structure. Likewise, Bartlett’s test was significant, χ²(45) = 1291.22, p < 0.001, confirming the suitability of the correlation matrix for conducting EFA.

Subsequently, a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was conducted to evaluate the structural validity of the models derived from the EFA. In the knowledge dimension, the fit indices suggest an excellent model fit (CFI = 0.977; TLI = 0.965; RMSEA = 0.034; SRMR = 0.035), supporting the adequacy of the proposed factor structure. In the motivations dimension, the model showed an acceptable fit (CFI = 0.93; TLI = 0.90; RMSEA = 0.08; SRMR = 0.07), falling within the ranges commonly considered adequate for models with brief factor structures. Finally, in the opportunities dimension, the values obtained (CFI = 0.95; TLI = 0.93; RMSEA = 0.08; SRMR = 0.04) indicate a good overall model fit, supporting the structural validity of this scale.

• Semi-Structured Interviews

In the qualitative phase, semi-structured interviews were chosen to expand on the information obtained from the questionnaire, allowing interviewees to express their ideas in their own words (Gilbert, 2008). Another reason for applying this technique was the flexibility of the format, considering that the target participants were students (Lopezosa, 2020). The interview script was developed by the authors based on the Likert-type scale items and was validated by university teachers who are experts in the field (Appendix A).

3.3. Sample

The non-probabilistic convenience sample included first and fourth year students of the primary education degree at the Universidad de Sevilla (US) and the Universitat Internacional de Catalunya (UIC), both located in Spain. Participation in the study was voluntary and informed consent was obtained from all subjects.

The research uses a comparative design between first and final-year students (extreme cohorts) to explore potential differences in the perception of knowledge, motivations, and opportunities following initial teacher training. This approach enables contrasting the entry profile—marked by pre-university education—and the exit profile, analysing whether the institutional culture and the university curriculum have influenced the transition towards deeper (transcendental) motivation and a clearer identification of barriers and opportunities for sustainability.

The selection of both HE institutions responded to a criterion of complementarity: one is a public university (US) and the other is private (UIC), with different institutional sizes, historical trajectories, and geographical locations. The US, larger and older, represents the Andalusian public university system, while the UIC, smaller and more recently established, belongs to the private sector of Catalan HE. Furthermore, the faculty of education at the US has over 2000 students in the primary education degree, whereas the faculty of education at the UIC, which offers the same degree, had 208 students in academic year 2024–2025.

This institutional and territorial diversity allows for comparing different educational realities and performing an analysis of the extent to which contextual differences may influence motivation to engage in sustainability and EfS.

A total of 396 students of the degree in primary education at both universities voluntarily and anonymously responded to the questionnaire through a self-administered online form (see

Table 2. Characterisation of the participants responding to the questionnaire.

Variable	N
Age
Mean	20.50
Median	21.00 (18.00, 21.00)
Range	18.00–42.00
Gender
Female	314 (79%)
Male	79 (20%)
Non-binary	2 (0.5%)
Prefer not to say	1 (0.3%)
Year
First year	196 (49%)
Last year	200 (51%)
University
UIC	40 (10%)
US	356 (90%)
Area of residence for >1 year
Rural	79 (20%)
Urban	317 (80%)

Source: authors’ own work.

). Twelve students who had previously responded to the Likert-type scale questionnaire volunteered to participate in the interviews (see

Table 3. Characterisation of the students interviewed.

Variable	N
Gender
Female	10 (83%)
Male	2 (17%)
Academic year
First year	7 (58%)
Last year	5 (42%)
University
UIC	3 (25%)
US	9 (75%)
Interview format
In-person	4 (33%)
Online	8 (64%)

Source: authors’ own work.

). The format was either in-person or remote via the Meet platform, and the sample size corresponds to the data saturation criterion (Hernández-Sampieri et al., 2014).

Both the Likert-type scale and the semi-structured interviews were conducted in January and February 2025 in Seville and Barcelona.

3.4. Data Analysis

Based on the information obtained from the questionnaire, a descriptive statistical analysis was performed to determine the response percentages for each item. Additionally, to evaluate the effect of sociodemographic variables on the different constructs, a linear regression model was used. The overall significance of the model was examined through an analysis of variance (ANOVA), while the regression coefficients allowed identifying the direction and magnitude of specific effects.

From the data collected through the questionnaire, a descriptive analysis was conducted to determine the frequency distributions of the items. Subsequently, in order to assess the effect of sociodemographic variables on the studied constructs, a multiple linear regression model was employed. The global significance of this model was tested using the F-statistic from ANOVA, while standardised coefficients enabled determining the direction and magnitude of the specific effects of each predictor. Furthermore, the potential correlation between the three dimensions of the questionnaire was examined using Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient, as the sample exhibited a non-parametric distribution.

Regarding the qualitative information, data processing was carried out through a thematic analysis supported by Atlas.ti (v.23) software, using a hybrid coding approach that combined deductive and inductive processes.

In the initial phase, a codebook consisting of 19 deductive codes, derived directly from the research objectives and the theoretical framework, was developed. Subsequently, during the segmentation and review process of the interviews, 14 inductive codes were identified. These codes emerged from the natural flow of the conversations, allowing for a deeper understanding of the students’ self-perception.

4. Results

4.1. Knowledge

In the two items of the questionnaire related to knowledge, the participants recognised their ability to define sustainability and EfS. Of all the respondents, 76% agreed or strongly agreed with being able to define sustainability, while 74% agreed or strongly agreed with being able to define EfS.

In general, the students mentioned they were able to define the concept of sustainability. One student put it as follows: “There is a view that adults are less familiar with sustainability, as they have spent a lifetime without being connected to nature” (U2_S09) Young people perceive themselves as being close to and knowledgeable of what sustainability is.

Furthermore, a large number of students associate sustainability with the environment and ecology. One student makes the following comment: “all the actions we carry out to try not to exhaust the resources at our disposal” (U2_S08). They primarily relate EfS to recycling: “It has become overexposed, like the usual topic, recycling” (U1_S03).

Despite the above, 18% of the participants responded “neutral” in both items (see Figure 1). This means that not everyone feels confident expressing what these two concepts represent. This idea is reinforced in the interviews with students from both universities. When asked to define sustainability, some responses were: “At university, it is not as if they explain it to you explicitly. But for me, sustainability is taking into account everything that surrounds us” (U1_S03). Another definition is the following: “Sustainability is the set of events, of acts that we perform to take care of the environment” (U2_S04). “Well, I understand sustainability as the use of the resources available in a way that does not abuse of them” (U2_S03). One student suggested: “It encompasses many things, right? (…). Perhaps offering a good definition of what sustainability is and having a global view would be very helpful for students” (U1_S01).

The findings regarding the effect of sociodemographic variables on the knowledge dimension are as follows: first, the ability to define sustainability and EfS is not determined by the students’ age or gender, but rather by whether they are first- or fourth-year students. Evidence shows that fourth-year students reach a significantly higher level of knowledge (β = 0.311, p = 0.045). However, this increase is moderated by the interaction between gender and area of residence. The positive effect of the final year is attenuated in male students residing in urban environments (triple interaction p = 0.015) who report knowledge levels lower than their group average.

4.2. Motivations

The results for motivations are separated by type: extrinsic, collective, intrinsic, and transcendent motivation.

The items in the questionnaire related to extrinsic motivation obtained the percentages shown in Figure 2. With respect to being valued by others, 41% of the respondents strongly agreed and agreed, while 31% neither agreed nor disagreed. In the item about avoiding criticism, 22% of the participants strongly agreed or agreed and 28% remained neutral.

It is observed that the opinion of others does not constitute a determining factor for future teachers. The statement regarding avoiding criticism from others shows 50% disagreement, indicating that external pressure or judgement hardly influence their sustainable behaviour.

In the interviews, some participants recognised that economic incentives could serve as an initial stimulus to encourage sustainable practices such as recycling. However, the majority agreed that these types of motivation are ephemeral and ineffective in the long term. As one student put it: “The moment you don’t receive anything in return, you’re not going to do it anymore” (U2_S03). Along the same lines, another student mentioned: “In the end, over time it has been seen that this doesn’t work; I see it in the education I have received” (U2_S07).

The percentages achieved for collective motivation are shown in Figure 3. In the questionnaire, the statement about participating because others do so too, obtained 30% of “strongly agree”, “agree”, and “neutral” responses. In the item about participating to connect with people that have similar interests, 23% of the participants strongly agreed or agreed, whereas 38% remained neutral.

The results show that this type of rationale for acting sustainably carries limited weight among primary education degree students. Both items present high levels of indifference (30% and 38%, respectively), reinforcing the idea that collective motivation is not perceived as a relevant driver of sustainable action.

Qualitative data align with this trend. In the interviews, the participants did not mention group membership or connection with others as decisive factors for acting sustainably. Their discourse was more oriented towards personal, ethical, or emotional reasons than towards the pursuit of approval or collective identity.

Taken together, these results suggest that future teachers’ motivations are framed within a more individual perspective, centred on the personal meaning of the action, pride, or internal consistency than on community participation, or the influence of others. This could be interpreted as a tendency among a segment of today’s youth to be mobilised by their own convictions. Collective motivation is not a determining factor in pre-service teachers’ commitment to sustainability.

Of the four types of motivation, intrinsic motivation presents the highest level of agreement (see Figure 4). The item in the questionnaire stating that engaging in sustainable behaviour is worthwhile attains 88% of “strongly agree” and “agree” responses, while 10% of the participants answered “neutral”, which shows indifference. The statement about feeling proud when behaving sustainably obtains similar responses: 86% strongly agreed or agreed, and 13% remain indifferent. In the statement about behaving sustainably being stimulating, 63% of the participants “strongly agree” and “agree”, whereas 33% remain indifferent.

Consistent with the questionnaire results, the interviews confirm that intrinsic motivation plays a central role in students’ commitment to sustainability. The participants express that acting sustainably provides them with personal satisfaction and pride, coinciding with the high percentages obtained in the quantitative items, especially in “it is worthwhile to adopt sustainable behaviours” and “the effort makes me feel proud” (U2_S09).

Several students highlight the importance of feeling good about themselves when contributing to their environment: “I feel proud to be truly contributing to my environment” (U2_S09), or “I feel better when I do something, because I think that, if I were in that situation, I would also like to be helped” (U2_S02). Along the same lines, one interviewee comments “I believe that, in the end, the good thing would be to have intrinsic motivation within oneself” (U2_S02), while another adds that “as people, an intrinsic motivation fulfils us much more than an extrinsic one” (U2_S06).

This comment regarding internal versus external motivation is also reflected in statements such as: “No matter how much financial compensation you receive… if the motivation does not come from oneself, there is no motivation” (U2_S08). Finally, some students link intrinsic motivation to interest and enjoyment in the activities they perform: “They are motivated by what they do when they are interested in the subject or what they are doing at that moment and they enjoy it” (U2_S07).

Taken together, the responses reveal that future teachers associate sustainability with a source of personal satisfaction, of internal coherence, rather than with external rewards. This confirms the predominance of intrinsic motivation observed in the quantitative results. However, the item “engaging in sustainable behaviour is stimulating” obtained 38% of “neutral” responses, which could be interpreted as reflecting that sustainable behaviour requires a high level of personal effort and sacrifice.

Students tend to focus on personal and ethical satisfaction derived from their sustainable behaviours. These results demonstrate a commitment to the core principles of sustainability and EfS.

Transcendent motivation is also important for future teachers (see Figure 5). The statement in the questionnaire about contributing to the common good obtained 86% of “strongly agree” or “agree” responses and 11% of “neutral” responses. In the item about leaving a more habitable world for future generations, 81% of the respondents strongly agreed or agreed, while 15% showed indifference.

In the interviews, the future teachers commented that thinking about the future—about their potential children, pets, or students—led them to consider sustainability as something important. Expressions such as “leaving a better world for the little ones of the future, for my children, for the next generations” (U1_S02), “caring for others, respecting the environment” (U1_S03), “helping the planet” (U2_S01), or “I hope the world is also habitable” (U2_S08) illustrate this orientation toward care and intergenerational responsibility. Likewise, some participants expressed this concern through negative formulations, such as “being aware of the damage that may be caused to the planet” (U2_S05).

Overall, the findings show a commitment to the common good and to the well-being of future generations. The participants associate this commitment with their future teaching practice and with values-based education for sustainability. They see sustainability and EfS as manifestations of empathy and care—attitudes perceived as essential in their future profession.

The results regarding the effect of sociodemographic variables on the motivation construct as a whole are as follows: motivation increases significantly according to age (β = 0.027, p = 0.004), gender, and whether they are first-or fourth year students. When analysed in isolation, they have no effect. Finally, the analysis of the triple interaction (4th year, male, and urban) reveals a decrease in motivation levels (p = 0.012). Nevertheless, this finding must be interpreted with caution due to the small size of this subgroup compared to the global sample. The number of male fourth-year students in the sample is 37.

4.3. Opportunities

As far as opportunities are concerned, the results suggest there is a shared vision among pre-service teachers: there are real, accessible, and specific opportunities that facilitate participation and training in sustainability. These opportunities span various domains, including educational, social, technological, institutional, and cooperative spheres (see Figure 6).

The opportunities pointed to the most are community initiatives. Of the participating pre-service teachers, 89% responded “agree” and “strongly agree.” In the item on collaboration between institutions, 91% of the participants agreed or strongly agreed. They also consider it important to integrate EfS and extra-curricular activities related to it into educational institutions. Both statements attained 88% of “agree” and “strongly agree” responses.

The item in the questionnaire that obtained the lowest level of agreement, 80%, refers to a less consumerist lifestyle. This item attained 15% of neutral responses.

In the interviews, several comments appeared showing that young people find it difficult not to buy the latest fashion garment, even if they do not need it: “buying clothes from this brand because they are nicer, or maybe a pair of jeans when I have 10 identical ones, but I like those” (U2_S04); or consuming less water: “today, a lot of water is wasted in the shower (…) we let the water run” (U2_S04).

They are highly focused on the present, without considering future consequences: “Taking for granted that everything will always be there (…) living life as if on automatic pilot, without thinking” (U2_S09), or “living very fast, focused on ourselves” (U2_S01).

In the opportunities dimension, the effect of sociodemographic variables is linked to the year of the degree, showing a positive and significant impact on fourth-year students (β = 0.690, p = 0.049). Furthermore, the model reveals that the university exerts a considerable influence (p = 0.002) on this construct, suggesting that the university context of origin could be a determining factor in how students identify development opportunities. However, this finding must be interpreted considering the asymmetry in the sample distribution between both universities (approximate ratio of 1:9).

Regarding the correlation between constructs, a relationship exists only between motivations and opportunities, with a very strong positive correlation of 0.85. In contrast, knowledge presents positive, but weak correlations with both motivations (r = 0.31) and opportunities (r = 0.33).

5. Discussion

The analysis of the results helps address the objectives established in this research: (1) to determine future primary education teachers’ perceptions of sustainability at two Spanish universities; (2) to identify the types of sustainability-related motivation they claim to possess; and (3) to explore the opportunities they perceive in their environment to act sustainably, as well as possible differences in responses based on sociodemographic traits.

The students from the two Spanish universities have a positive self-perception regarding their knowledge of sustainability and EfS. In the questionnaire, the majority claim to be able to define both concepts. However, in the interviews, they provide partial definitions focused mainly on the environmental dimension, showing a limited level of conceptual accuracy. Likewise, it is observed that fourth-year students report a significantly higher level of knowledge than first-year students. This result was expected considering they have had more university training and have accumulated more academic and life experiences than first-year students. However, this finding could also be conditioned by a social desirability bias during the interviews.

This difficulty in formulating comprehensive definitions aligns with previous research indicating that sustainability is a complex, broad, and difficult-to-define concept, even for those actively involved in formal educational processes (Bianchi et al., 2022; Zúñiga-Sánchez, 2021; Blanco-Portela et al., 2018; Leal Filho, 2009). Although most participants state they have addressed sustainability in both school and university education—especially within a regulatory context that, since 2021, requires sustainability to be incorporated into academic curricula—a large portion of the sample continues to associate it almost exclusively with recycling. This shows they do not have a holistic understanding of the concept. This reductionist view may be related to the lack of preparation of some teacher educators in comprehensively integrating the contents and dimensions of sustainability into their educational practice (Albion et al., 2025; UNESCO, 2022a).

Together with formal training, the interviewees highlight the influence of sustainable family practices—such as saving water and electricity, or waste separation—as key elements in building their relationship with sustainability. This everyday environment acts as motivational support that facilitates internalising values and responsibilities. This aligns with the findings of Ryan and Deci (2020), who emphasise the importance of the social context in the internalisation of goals. These experiences contribute to the development of intrinsic and transcendent motivation towards sustainability and EfS, which were precisely the dimensions most valued by the participants in this study. Both types of motivation are linked to a deeper and more lasting commitment to sustainable behaviours.

Regarding the second research objective related to motivations, the students view motivation as a driving force for action, consistent with the frameworks of Zúñiga-Sánchez (2021) and Ryan and Deci (2020). Motivation is perceived as the energy necessary to initiate and maintain care-oriented behaviours towards people and the planet. The participants name, describe, and perceive themselves as possessing the most well-known types of motivation—extrinsic and intrinsic (Juma-Michilena et al., 2023; Ryan & Deci, 2020). Among extrinsic motivations, they recognise monetary incentives, marks, or point systems to engage pre-school and early primary students. Regarding intrinsic motivation, they point to personal satisfaction.

Although the interviewees do not explicitly mention collective and transcendent motivation, they do describe actions related to these types of impulses (Marder et al., 2023; Pérez-López, 1997). In the students’ perceptions, the most relevant motivation for sustainability and EfS is intrinsic—the belief that it is worthwhile to make efforts for sustainable behaviours (89%)—followed by transcendent motivation focused on the common good (87%). This is consistent with Juma-Michilena et al. (2023), who argue that motivation for sustainability is closely related to personal values and the acceptance of responsibility for environmental care. Conversely, the least valued are collective and extrinsic motivation, a finding echoed by Maiorescu et al. (2020), who found that public recognition and the decision of other teachers to participate in an activity are considered to be less motivating. It also aligns with Ferlazzo’s (2023) idea that extrinsic motivation works for tasks that do not require complex thinking, or are of short duration.

Furthermore, the fact that the participants do not value extrinsic motivation for themselves, but do consider it useful for adults coincides with what Ferlazzo (2023) calls the “instrumental value” of motivation. According to this perspective, adults who are less familiar with sustainable behaviours might not act out of intrinsic satisfaction and may require economic incentives or external reinforcement to initiate or maintain such actions.

Future primary education teachers do not relate their knowledge of the subject to the motivation or impulse to act, as noted by Timm and Barth (2021). Instead, they establish a link between motivation and the consequences of their actions. Positive future effects on the planet and people (children or students) drive them to strive for sustainable behaviours. As Ferlazzo (2023) indicates, future teachers have an interest in sustainability and know they can be agents of change. These two conditions promote intrinsic motivation.

The importance of the participants in this study gives transcendent motivation as a key finding. It may be explained by the fact that they are currently thinking about their future students and the world in which they will live. This same reason could explain the high level of agreement with the notion that it is worthwhile to behave sustainably despite the effort required.

Personal sacrifice, denial, and limitations inherent in caring for others and the planet could be the reasons behind the percentage showing indifference, 38%, in the questionnaire for the item stating that behaving sustainably is stimulating. In the interviews, some participants acknowledged their difficulty in resisting the purchase of the latest trendy product for another that is less polluting. This tension highlights the importance of designing pedagogies that seek to increase the enjoyment component (intrinsic pleasure) of sustainable action.

Given the limited importance attributed to collective motivation, it is essential to stress the need for collective actions in EfS. GreenComp, the European sustainability competence framework designed to build knowledge, skills, and attitudes to promote a more sustainable society, considers sustainability problems to be complex, systemic, and interconnected. There is hence a pressing need for promoting spaces in teaching for collaboration, collective participation, group projects, and shared initiatives in the educational community (Bianchi et al., 2022). Furthermore, UNESCO (2022c) maintains that learning for sustainable development is social learning. It takes place in real-life situations that challenge and transform life in society. This is how sustainability competences are learnt (Barth et al., 2007).

The findings show a positive correlation between the age of the participants and global levels of motivation towards sustainability. The older the students, the more they are motivated towards adopting sustainable behaviours. This trend underscores the need for sustainability training not to be limited to isolated interventions, but rather to be integrated progressively throughout the entire academic itinerary in a cross-curricular manner.

With respect to the third objective, opportunities, the future teachers highlight collaboration between institutions as the most important (91% strongly agree and agree). This coincides with the findings of the UNESCO (2022c) report. Second is community initiatives, which they consider as a possibility for engaging in sustainable behaviours. Of all the participants, 90% strongly agree or agree on this point. However, this is inconsistent with the low value they grant to collective motivation. In the third place, they indicate that incorporating EfS into extracurricular activities is key. The latter two statements attain 88% “strongly agree” and “agree” responses.

The lowest level of agreement, 80%, is found in the statement referring to a less consumerist lifestyle, where 15% of the pre-service teachers remained indifferent. This is consistent with the percentage obtained for the statement about finding sustainable behaviour stimulating. Of all the participants, 38% provided a neutral response, showing indifference.

6. Conclusions

This study on the perceptions of future primary education teachers from two Spanish universities allows concluding that a cognitive inconsistency exists: although students perceive themselves as capable of defining sustainability and EfS, a reductionist view of sustainability persists. This view is largely anchored in the environmental pillar of sustainability and in actions such as recycling. This finding suggests that incorporating sustainability into curricula, as promoted by the CRUE and Royal decree 822/2021 has achieved informational literacy, but has not yet consolidated a holistic and comprehensive view of the concept.

With regard to motivation, the study highlights the importance the pre-service teachers give to intrinsic and transcendent motivation. The fact that a commitment to the common good outweighs external incentives (extrinsic motivation) may indicate the value that future primary education teachers place on ethical commitment and consideration for their future students. However, this impulse is hindered by their social environment: the participants identify a consumerist lifestyle not only as something common among them, but as a barrier that complicates putting those values into practice. This disconnection suggests that teacher training should go beyond merely teaching concepts. Future teachers should be empowered to tackle the pressures of the socio-economic environment through strategies such as fieldwork, case studies, etc.

The observed discrepancy between the low valuation of collective motivation and the high valuation attributed to opportunities for cooperation among institutions and individuals suggests a potential inconsistency in the respondents’ perceptions. This paradox may indicate the need to strengthen collective action competence as a key educational objective in order to more effectively advance the achievement of the SDGs within both school and HE contexts.

Finally, the results reveal that, although academic progression significantly influences self-perceived knowledge, the increase in motivation is closely associated with the age of the pre-service teachers. These findings underscore the importance of implementing sustained interventions throughout the entire university degree, rather than as isolated cross-curricular content. The faculties of education and public policy frameworks should move beyond a purely content-based approach, aiming instead to empower future teachers to engage with and transform socio-economic and environmental barriers from within the classroom.

In conclusion, the findings of this study demonstrate that acquired knowledge does not necessarily translate students’ intrinsic and transcendent values into collective action competences capable of resisting the pressures of the consumerist socioeconomic environment. It is therefore imperative to design a curriculum that leverages students’ high intrinsic motivation to effectively equip them to face sociocultural barriers such as consumerism and social inertia. Finally, future lines of research that complement the findings presented here are opened; in this regard, it is essential to develop longitudinal studies that assess the real impact of these motivations once pre-service teachers enter the school labour market, as well as to deepen qualitative research exploring how inter-institutional cooperation networks can act as pedagogical catalysts to transform individual intentions into effective collective actions in favour of the SDGs.

7. Limitations

While the sample consists of two universities that may largely represent the reality of future teachers in Spain, the disparity in group sizes calls for more in-depth future studies using more balanced samples to confirm whether the differences respond to the specific sustainability policies of each university, or to other variables. Likewise, because of the scope and design of this study, the analysis did not consider potential biases or the underlying causes of the low correlation observed between knowledge and motivation, and between knowledge and the perception of opportunities. Future studies should therefore examine these relationships more thoroughly, including whether the use of a non-probability sample introduced selection bias and whether participants’ responses were influenced by social desirability bias.