Preparing for Ethnoculturally Diverse Kindergartens: Which Multicultural Teaching Competence Standards Do Preservice Preschool Teachers Endorse?

Abstract

Increasing ethnocultural diversity in kindergartens makes preschool teachers’ multicultural teaching competence (MTC) a core professional requirement. Therefore, it is important that, during initial preschool teacher education (IPTE), candidates come to regard the standards embedded in MTC as professionally relevant—what we conceptualize in this paper as endorsement of MTC standards—as this may shape their later development and enactment of MTC in practice. Yet, previous research has not examined the extent to which preservice preschool teachers endorse MTC standards or the antecedents of such endorsement. To address this gap, we assessed preservice preschool teachers’ (N = 88) endorsement of MTC standards and the related antecedents. Exploratory factor analysis of the adapted Multicultural Teaching Competency Scale identified three dimensions: multicultural teaching knowledge, equity-driven classroom practice, and multicultural content implementation standards. Participants reported high endorsement of equity-driven practice and multicultural teaching knowledge, but lower endorsement of multicultural content implementation standards. Linear regression analyses showed that multicultural attitudes were positively related to endorsement across all three dimensions, while multicultural ideology and frequency of traveling abroad were related only to multicultural content implementation. Implications are discussed for improving initial and continuing preparation programs, including through anti-bias education and intersectionality-informed frameworks.

1. Introduction

With the increasing ethnocultural diversity of European societies and, consequently, educational institutions, great importance is attached to teachers’ multicultural competence as a core professional requirement. Policies therefore emphasize the need to systematically foster this competence during both initial teacher education and continuing professional development (European Commission, 2017; OECD, 2023a). This is all the more important in countries marked by interethnic tensions and negative attitudes toward certain ethnic groups, such as Slovenia, where children from former Yugoslav countries and Roma children are regularly discriminated against (Macura-Milovanović et al., 2013; Mlinar & Peček, 2023). Many studies indicate that learners’ social and academic success, as well as their sense of belonging and engagement, increase when the education system recognizes and adapts to their cultural background, underscoring the need to strengthen multicultural teaching competence (Spanierman et al., 2011; MTC; Denson et al., 2017; Mlinar & Peček, 2024).

Despite these realities, much research in this field, as well as many policies on diversity, equity and inclusion (DEI) and teacher preparation guidance, has historically focused on compulsory education and the preparation of primary and secondary school teachers, while early childhood education and care (ECEC) has received comparatively less sustained attention (European Commission, 2017; Djonko-Moore et al., 2018; OECD, 2023a). This is consequential, as early childhood is a critical period during which fundamental views on diversity, and understandings of difference, fairness, and belonging are formed. Preschool teachers play a crucial role in shaping the everyday conditions under which these views and understandings develop. Inadequate approaches to addressing diversity can hinder children’s development of a healthy identity, positive attitudes toward others, caring interpersonal relationships, and comfort and joy with diversity (Derman-Sparks et al., 2020a), while also signaling limited MTC needed for culturally responsive practice (Leung & Hue, 2017). Although teachers in both school and preschool settings are expected to create equitable conditions for participation, communicate with families, and prevent the marginalization of minoritized groups, what differs in ECEC is the form of enactment: MTC is expressed less through subject-based instruction and more through the design of learning environments, the organization and planning of pedagogical work, and interactions and communication with families (OECD, 2021, see also OECD, 2023b).

The issues above are particularly relevant in Slovenia, where about 85% of children aged 1–6 are enrolled in kindergartens (Eurydice, 2023), and about 10% of them have foreign citizenship (SURS, 2025). However, citizenship data alone do not capture the full ethnocultural diversity of kindergarten classrooms, as children with Slovenian citizenship may also have an immigrant background (e.g., at least one foreign-born parent) (Razpotnik, 2017). This suggests that kindergartens are likely more ethnoculturally diverse than citizenship data alone indicate, making MTC of preschool teachers necessary to support the participation, belonging, and learning of children from all ethnocultural backgrounds (Leung & Hue, 2017; Derman-Sparks et al., 2020a). This importance is now explicitly recognized in the newly adopted core national programming document, the Kindergarten Curriculum (Antič et al., 2025), which highlights the central role of developing this competence among preschool teachers to “enable them to understand cultural differences and adapt their own behavior and communication in multicultural situations” (p. 77). Yet, no mandatory courses specifically aimed at developing this competence are currently offered at any of the three faculties of education that prepare future preschool teachers. This raises the question of whether initial preschool teacher education (IPTE) provides a sufficiently strong foundation for future preschool teachers to respond adequately not only to the realities and challenges of ethnoculturally diverse classrooms, but also to achieve the goals now set out in the new Curriculum.

The development of MTC is a lasting process that occurs primarily in and through practice (Deardorff, 2006; Grosemans et al., 2015; Romijn et al., 2021; Dzerviniks et al., 2024). However, IPTE plays an important role in laying the foundation for this development, especially in contexts such as Slovenia, where preservice preschool teachers have limited opportunities during their initial preparation to gain practical experience with autonomous pedagogical work in kindergartens. Studies have shown that what preservice teachers experience during IPTE influences the development of culturally responsive dispositions and teaching practices, beliefs about linguistic and cultural diversity, and their understanding of what constitutes good professional practice (e.g., Kidd et al., 2008; Paetsch et al., 2023). It is therefore reasonable to expect that IPTE influences the extent to which preservice preschool teachers interpret the standards embedded in MTC as professionally important, useful, or inherently meaningful—what we conceptualize in this paper as endorsement of MTC standards.

Against this background, the present study addresses the following research problem: despite the recognized importance of teachers’ multicultural teaching competence in ECEC and the role of IPTE in laying its foundations, to the best of our knowledge, no studies have examined preservice preschool teachers’ endorsement of the standards encompassed by MTC or the antecedents of such endorsement. Accordingly, this study has two aims: (1) to assess the extent to which preservice preschool teachers endorse MTC standards, and (2) to examine the antecedents of this endorsement.

The findings of our study can support evidence-based review and restructuring of IPTE and course curricula, ensuring that future preschool teachers enter the profession with a strong motivational commitment to MTC standards as a foundation for further development and enactment of their MTC, as required by the new Kindergarten curriculum. At the same time, once preservice teachers transition into professional roles, their continuing professional development (CPD) becomes crucial, especially if they enter the profession with a weak endorsement of MTC standards. Our findings can therefore inform CPD programs by identifying which dimensions may require greater and more structured emphasis.

1.1. Conceptualizing Multicultural Teaching Competence

Multicultural competence is a contested construct, and for decades, researchers have proposed various definitions and models, including different accounts of its components or dimensions (Deardorff, 2006; e.g., Byram, 2021). Yet, no universal, single definition or agreed-upon terminology has emerged (Baiutti, 2015; Romijn et al., 2021; Genkova et al., 2025; Shonfeld et al., 2025). When this competence is considered in relation to teachers’ work in multicultural educational settings—that is, as competence for teaching practice—it is commonly discussed as multicultural teaching competence (Spanierman et al., 2011; e.g., Cuellar et al., 2023). The literature is also inconsistent in its use of the terms multicultural and intercultural, with some scholars using them interchangeably, while others differentiate them conceptually or emphasize their complementarity (Turnšek, 2016; Baiutti, 2017; Verkuyten et al., 2020; Johansson, 2024). A fuller discussion of these distinctions is beyond the scope of this paper. For the purposes of the present study, we treat multicultural and intercultural competence as synonymous and use the term multicultural primarily because it corresponds to the construct measured and to the instrument used to assess it.

Most conceptualizations of multicultural competence are based on the tripartite component model, which includes cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions (Chen, 2014; Genkova et al., 2025). In terms of MTC, multicultural teaching knowledge represents the cognitive component, multicultural teaching awareness the affective component, and multicultural teaching skills the behavioral component. Multicultural teaching knowledge typically refers to teachers’ knowledge of relevant theories (e.g., ethnic identity theories), appropriate pedagogical approaches, and strategies for working in multicultural classrooms, while skills refer to the ability to apply this knowledge in practice, including through respectful interaction, sensitive communication, and the creation of inclusive classroom conditions for children from different cultural backgrounds (Spanierman et al., 2011; Dzerviniks et al., 2024; Shonfeld et al., 2025; Veerman & Chevalking, 2025). The concept of awareness, however, is conceptually fragile. In some accounts (see Veerman & Chevalking, 2025), it is treated as the affective or attitudinal component (e.g., recognition of cultural differences, attitudes toward multicultural education). In other accounts, awareness is considered part of the cognitive dimension of competence, together with knowledge, while the affective dimension is conceptualized differently, for example, as intercultural sensitivity (e.g., Chen, 2014; Chen & Starosta, 2008). Moreover, some frameworks reduce multicultural competence to two dimensions, behavioral and cognitive (Genkova et al., 2025). Taken together, this suggests that, although MTC is commonly treated as a multidimensional construct, its internal structure remains theoretically unsettled.

This lack of consensus is also evident in research that operationalizes MTC. Even when instruments are based on the three-component model, factor structures often collapse into two dimensions, most commonly multicultural teaching skills and multicultural teaching knowledge (e.g., Cuellar et al., 2023; Spanierman et al., 2011; Veerman & Chevalking, 2025; Yang & Montgomery, 2011). Such a knowledge-skills structure is theoretically plausible in educational settings, as it maps relatively clearly onto practice-relevant professional expectations (see also Cuellar et al., 2023). However, additional dimensions may become salient in particular educational and sociocultural contexts, as illustrated, for example, in Leung and Hue’s (2017); see also (Leung & Hue, 2020) study among Hong Kong preschool teachers. In this study, rather than the bipartite knowledge-skills structure proposed by the instrument used, a tripartite structure consisting of skills, knowledge, and relationships/cultural harmony fit the data. The relationship dimension was especially salient in this setting, which the authors interpret in relation to local cultural emphases on harmonious interpersonal relations, underscoring the context-dependence of competence (Rychen & Salganik, 2003; see also Baiutti, 2017; Shonfeld et al., 2025). This work suggests that some dimensions of MTC may function as broader anchors across settings, whereas others acquire greater salience through local educational and cultural conditions. This means that examining MTC in preschool settings is not simply an extension of school-based research, but a context-specific question in its own right.

1.2. Endorsement of MTC Standards Among Preservice Preschool Teachers

Examining MTC in preschool settings as a context-specific question applies not only to how the construct is conceptualized but also to how its professional significance is addressed during IPTE. As IPTE is a formative period in which future preschool teachers develop their professional orientations, an important question is the extent to which they already endorse the standards encompassed by MTC—that is, recognize them as professionally important, useful, and worth pursuing.

We anchor the construct of endorsement in the subjective task value component of expectancy–value theory (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). From this perspective, endorsement of MTC standards can be understood as a motivational-evaluative orientation likely to influence which aspects of MTC preservice teachers will prioritize, seek to further develop, and potentially enact in their future work in ethnoculturally diverse ECEC settings. Although in our view, endorsement has not received sufficient direct attention in research on MTC, its relevance is supported by studies showing that preservice teachers’ subjective task values are associated with later professional engagement, task choices, effort, persistence, and performance (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Watt & Richardson, 2008; Yu et al., 2023), as well as with culturally responsive practice and motivation to teach diverse learners (Whitaker & Valtierra, 2018). In this sense, endorsement is not merely a proxy for competence, but rather an actionable indicator of whether IPTE succeeds in positioning MTC standards as “worthy” and therefore likely to be enacted and further developed in practice (cf. Watt & Richardson, 2015).

Against this backdrop, our analytical framework treats MTC standards as practice-oriented professional expectations that specify what preschool teachers should know and be able to do in ethnoculturally diverse ECEC settings, thus reflecting the knowledge and skills dimensions of MTC. We foreground these two dimensions because they are the most consistently identifiable and practice-relevant across the literature, and therefore the most directly translatable into professional expectations for ECEC practice (cf. National Association for the Education of Young Children, 2020). This does not mean that MTC is assumed to be universally or exhaustively two-dimensional; rather, for the purposes of this study, these two dimensions provide a focused framework for examining which standards preservice preschool teachers in Slovenia endorse, while remaining open to the possibility that other dimensions may prove salient in this specific cultural and institutional context.

1.3. The Antecedents of Endorsement of MTC Standards

To the best of our knowledge, the factors shaping endorsement of MTC standards have not yet been examined. In this study, we focus on three antecedent domains: multicultural attitudes, multicultural ideology, and intergroup contact. These were selected to provide a more focused analytical framework by capturing three related but distinct sources from which endorsement may arise: attitudes toward ethnocultural diversity in educational contexts, broader support for ethnocultural diversity in society, and lived experience with diversity, respectively.

Preschool teachers’ multicultural attitudes were selected as the most proximal antecedent, consistent with multicultural competence models that position attitudes as a foundational gateway for developing knowledge and skills (e.g., Deardorff, 2006; Spanierman et al., 2009). Additionally, previous findings indicate that more positive multicultural attitudes among teachers are associated with culturally responsive teaching, greater professional engagement in diverse classrooms, and successful implementation of curricula oriented toward respecting differences (Abacioglu et al., 2020; e.g., Aalto et al., 2024).

Multicultural ideology refers broadly to valuing and supporting ethnocultural diversity in society, including the view that individuals from all ethnocultural backgrounds should be able to maintain their heritage culture while also engaging in contact and equitable participation in society (Berry, 2017). It was chosen as a more distal antecedent because it reflects a broader normative orientation toward ethnocultural diversity, including the belief that social institutions, such as educational ones, should respond to such diversity in inclusive and equitable ways (Verkuyten, 2009; Berry et al., 2022). In the Slovenian context, previous research among preservice primary school teachers has shown that their multicultural ideology is positively related to their multicultural attitudes (Mlinar & Krammer, 2021). Preservice teachers who more strongly endorse a multicultural ideology should, therefore, be more likely to view MTC standards as professionally important.

Finally, experiences with diversity through intergroup contact, such as the makeup of one’s neighborhood, close intergroup friendships, prior schooling in ethnoculturally diverse classrooms, or traveling abroad, can make ethnocultural differences more familiar, concrete, and personally meaningful. Consistent with intergroup contact theory and previous findings, such experiences are associated with more positive intergroup attitudes, greater multicultural competence, ethnocultural empathy, and related diversity orientations and perceptions among (preservice) teachers (Davies et al., 2011; Pettigrew et al., 2011; Vezzali et al., 2012; Huang et al., 2023; Tuğba Emiroğlu et al., 2023; Jurković, 2024; Veerman & Chevalking, 2025).

1.4. The Current Study

1.4.1. Context of the Study

In Slovenia, the importance of recognizing the needs of children from diverse linguistic and ethnocultural backgrounds was first acknowledged in the national Kindergarten curriculum in 1999 (Bahovec et al., 1999), providing, as Turnšek (2016, p. 54) notes, “an important incentive for the transformation and innovation of teaching practice.” In the recently adopted revised curriculum (Antič et al., 2025), these dimensions remain and are more clearly defined, explicitly mentioning the central role of preschool teachers’ multicultural competence. The recently adopted Guidelines for the Inclusion of Children, Pupils and Upper Secondary Students from Other Linguistic and Cultural Backgrounds in the Slovenian Education System (Zore et al., 2024) and the Guidelines for the Integration of Children and Youth under Temporary Protection in Educational Institutions (Pajntar et al., 2022) also emphasize the relevance of such competence in educational work. However, the question remains whether IPTE provides future preschool teachers with sufficient and appropriate foundations for developing this competence (cf. Turnšek, 2013).

To work independently as a preschool teacher in Slovenia, one must obtain a Bachelor’s degree in Preschool Education, a three-year program offered by the three faculties of education at the University of Ljubljana, University of Maribor, and University of Primorska. These faculties operate within the same national legal and accreditation framework, and their graduates are assessed against the same state-level professional requirements. However, the faculties do not offer identical curricula; each institution independently designs its own courses, sequencing, and practical components within that common framework (Zakon o Visokem Šolstvu [Higher Education Act] (ZViS-1), 2025).

None of these faculties currently offers a mandatory course explicitly dedicated to diversity or specifically to multicultural education. The closest courses are one offered in the third year of the Bachelor’s program at the Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana (University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, n.d.), titled “Inclusive Education,” and another in the second year of the Bachelor’s program at the Faculty of Education, University of Primorska (University of Primorska, Faculty of Education, n.d.), titled “Inclusion in Preschool Education.” While multicultural education may also be addressed within other courses, it typically appears as one topic within broader course syllabi rather than as a specifically dedicated course. Against this backdrop, examining the endorsement of MTC standards among preservice preschool teachers can provide evidence to inform potential revisions of IPTE curricula.

1.4.2. Research Questions and Hypothesis of the Study

The study addresses the following research questions: (1) To what extent do preservice preschool teachers endorse MTC standards? and (2) What are the antecedents of endorsement of these standards among multicultural attitudes, multicultural ideology and intergroup contact?

On this basis, we developed five hypotheses. First, we hypothesize that preservice preschool teachers will report high endorsement of both multicultural teaching knowledge-oriented and multicultural skills-oriented MTC standards. This hypothesis follows from the strong normative positioning of DEI, and specifically intercultural education, in educational policy and curricular frameworks as part of appropriate and expected professional practice at both national and international levels (European Commission, 2017; National Association for the Education of Young Children, 2020; OECD, 2023b; Zore et al., 2024; Antič et al., 2025).

Second, we hypothesize that endorsement of knowledge-oriented MTC standards will be higher than endorsement of skills-oriented MTC standards. This hypothesis is based on findings suggesting that preservice teachers often report a stronger need for knowledge about diversity, while simultaneously reporting limited preparedness or confidence in enacting culturally responsive practices (Chakir & Peček, 2014; Kamau Oginga, 2007; Medarić et al., 2021; Peček & Macura-Milovanović, 2012; R. Taylor et al., 2016). This suggests that standards formulated in terms of what teachers should know may be easier to endorse than standards formulated in terms of what teachers should do.

Third, we hypothesize that endorsement of both knowledge-oriented and skills-oriented MTC standards will be positively related to preservice preschool teachers’ multicultural attitudes. This hypothesis is based on prior research on multicultural teaching knowledge and skills (Chen, 2017; Spanierman et al., 2011; see also Deardorff, 2006) and on multicultural attitudes among (preservice) teachers (Abacioglu et al., 2020; Aalto et al., 2024).

Fourth, we hypothesize that endorsement of both knowledge-oriented and skills-oriented MTC standards will be positively related to preservice preschool teachers’ multicultural ideology. This hypothesis follows from theoretical accounts that conceptualize multicultural ideology as a broader normative commitment to ethnocultural diversity and inclusive institutional responses (Berry et al., 2022), as well as previous work examining the role of multicultural ideology in educational settings (e.g., Mlinar & Krammer, 2021).

Fifth, we hypothesize that endorsement of both knowledge-oriented and skills-oriented MTC standards will be positively related to various intergroup contact predictors (i.e., neighborhood makeup, frequency of traveling abroad, prior schooling in ethnoculturally diverse classrooms, and close intergroup friendships). This hypothesis is based on intergroup contact theory and previous research on the role of different forms of intergroup contact (e.g., Davies et al., 2011; Pettigrew et al., 2011; Vezzali et al., 2012; Huang et al., 2023; Veerman & Chevalking, 2025).

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Sample and Procedure

The participants were 88 Slovenian pre-service teachers (87~98.9% identified as female; average age 20.95, SD = 1.65), recruited from the Faculty of Education of the University of Ljubljana. Participation was voluntary, and all participants provided informed consent before completing the anonymous survey. The survey was administered in person by the author of the study. Participants answered sociodemographic questions and intergroup contact questions and completed the adapted Slovenian versions of the Multicultural Teaching Competency Scale (MTCS), the Teachers’ Multicultural Attitude Survey (TMAS), and the Multicultural Ideology Scale (MIS).

2.2. Material

2.2.1. Endorsement of Multicultural Teaching Competence Standards

The endorsement of preschool teachers’ multicultural teaching competence standards was measured using an adapted version of the Multicultural Teaching Competency Scale, developed by Spanierman et al. (2011). The original MTCS is a 16-item, two-factor scale, developed in English to assess teachers’ self-reported multicultural teaching competence. It specifically measures multicultural teaching skills or behaviors (i.e., how well teachers integrate culturally sensitive practices into their teaching) and multicultural teaching knowledge (i.e., teachers’ understanding of culturally responsive pedagogy, historical and sociopolitical contexts, and instructional strategies for diverse students). A sample item is, “I plan many activities to celebrate diverse cultural practices in my classroom”. Responses are given on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree), with higher scores indicating higher levels of multicultural teaching competence. One item is reverse-scored.

Because this study examines preservice preschool teachers’ endorsement of MTC standards, the original MTCS could not be used without modification. Although the original scale was designed for both pre- and in-service teachers, its items are phrased in a way that presumes actual classroom teaching experience. This makes the original wording less suitable for contexts such as Slovenia, where preservice preschool teachers are not yet independently working in kindergartens. Considering this and our study rationale, we adapted the items to capture the extent to which respondents endorse MTC standards as practice-oriented professional expectations for preschool teachers. Specifically, self-referential items were reformulated as statements about what preschool teachers should know and be able to do, and school/classroom wording was adjusted to the preschool context. For example, the original item, “I have a clear understanding of culturally responsive pedagogy”, was adapted to ”The preschool teacher should have a clear understanding of culturally responsive pedagogy”. In this way, the adapted version operationalizes endorsement of MTC standards rather than self-assessed MTC.

The original English scale was first translated into Slovenian by the first author in accordance with the required standards for questionnaire translation (Peña, 2007; Sousa & Rojjanasrirat, 2011; Tsang et al., 2017), and then reviewed using the back-translation method by a professional translator. Additionally, due to controversy and negative associations with the terms “race” and “racial” in most European countries (Farkas, 2017), the Slovenian version of the scale used only the term “ethnic,” which is more widely accepted.

Given these adaptations, the original factor structure of the MTCS could not be assumed to transfer unchanged. Prior research also indicates that the dimensional structure of MTC, as identified using the MTCS, may vary across educational and cultural contexts (e.g., Leung & Hue, 2017, 2020). Therefore, we conducted an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with varimax rotation in SPSS 29.0.0 to examine the factor structure of the adapted scale. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of 0.81 indicated “meritorious” sampling adequacy (Field, 2018). To enhance transparency and replicability for future research, all items (in both the original and Slovenian adapted versions) are presented in Appendix A.

The EFA yielded four factors (F1, F2, F3, and F4) with eigenvalues greater than 1, explaining 61.67% of the total variance. Item MTCS_61 had a loading below 0.4 and was therefore excluded from further analysis. MTCS_8 showed high loadings on both F1 and F2, but was conceptually more appropriate for F1. Internal consistency was high for two factors: F1 (α = 0.81) and F2 (α = 0.73). For F3 and F4, the analysis indicated that removing items would improve internal consistency. Specifically, removing MTCS_9 from F3 increased α to 0.79, and removing MTCS_7 from F4 increased α to 0.72. Both deletions were justified statistically and substantively. It is possible that respondents did not fully understand MTCS_9, as the phrase “promoting diversity by the behaviors preschool teachers exhibit” may have been too vague to be clearly understood, potentially introducing interpretive variability that undermined its psychometric coherence with the rest of the scale. The phrasing may not have anchored respondents to a concrete, observable set of classroom practices, allowing for varied interpretations. Additionally, subtle shifts in meaning introduced during translation or adaptation may have further increased semantic ambiguity. Regarding MTCS_7, the main issue may have been the combination of reverse-wording, a normative statement (“should”), and a low-frequency qualifier (“rarely”), potentially causing misunderstanding in translation and eliciting inconsistent responses. Furthermore, the phrase “examine institutional materials … for ethnic bias” may not have been uniformly recognized or may have been interpreted differently by respondents (e.g., checking lesson plans, evaluating textbooks, or addressing stereotypes), increasing random error and weakening its alignment with the intended factor.

After the deletion, F4 included only two items (MTCS_12 and MTCS_13). A closer examination indicated that both items are conceptually related to those in F2, with MTCS_12 also showing a double, though lower, loading on this factor. Therefore, we performed a correlation analysis between F2 and F4, which revealed a strong correlation (r = 0.58, p < 0.001). Consequently, we included the items from F4 in F2, resulting in high internal consistency for this factor (α = 0.80).

The Slovenian version of the MTCS, adapted for preschool preservice teachers to assess their endorsement of MTC standards, resulted in a three-factor structure. One factor focused on knowledge, while the other two were practice-oriented: (1) Multicultural teaching knowledge (sample item: “The preschool teacher should have a clear understanding of culturally responsive pedagogy”; α = 0.80); (2) Equity-driven classroom practice (sample item: “The preschool teacher should make changes within the general kindergarten environment so that ethnic minority children would have an equal opportunity for success”; α = 0.79); and (3) Multicultural content implementation (sample item: “The preschool teacher’s syllabi should integrate topics and events from the lives of ethnic minorities”; α = 0.81). All items within each factor are presented in Appendix A.

2.2.2. Multicultural Attitudes

Multicultural attitudes were measured using the Teachers’ Multicultural Attitude Survey (TMAS; Ponterotto et al., 1998), a 20-item unidimensional scale originally developed in English to assess teachers’ self-reported attitudes toward multiculturalism in educational contexts. A sample item is, “I find teaching a culturally diverse student group rewarding”. Responses are given on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree), with higher scores indicating more positive multicultural attitudes. Seven items are reverse-scored.

We adapted the scale for prospective preschool teachers. For example, the item “Teachers have the responsibility to be aware of their students’ cultural backgrounds” was changed to “Preschool teachers have the responsibility to be aware of their students’ cultural backgrounds”. The scale was first translated into Slovenian by the first author and then reviewed using the back-translation method by two professional translators. Due to the peculiarities of the Slovenian language, the item “As classrooms become more culturally diverse, the teacher’s job becomes increasingly challenging” had to be reverse scored, resulting in eight items being reverse scored. The Slovenian version of the TMAS had a high internal consistency in our sample (α = 0.77).

2.2.3. Multicultural Ideology

To assess preservice preschool teachers’ multicultural ideology, we used the Multicultural Ideology Scale (MIS; Berry, 2017). The MIS is a unidimensional English scale consisting of 10 items that measure support for cultural diversity in society, advocacy for the preservation of cultural heritage, and equitable participation of all ethnocultural groups in society. A sample item is, “A society that has a variety of ethnic and cultural groups is more able to tackle new problems as they occur”. Items are rated on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree), with higher scores indicating greater endorsement of multicultural ideology. Five items are reverse-scored.

For this study, we used the Slovenian version of the scale, which was previously developed and used by Mlinar and Krammer (2021). The Slovenian version of the MIS showed high internal consistency in our sample (α = 0.74).

2.2.4. Intergroup Contact

Intergroup contact was operationalized through four indicators that captured both structural opportunities for intergroup encounters and direct intercultural experiences: the makeup of participants’ neighborhoods, prior schooling in ethnoculturally diverse classrooms, frequency of traveling abroad, and close intergroup friendships.

To assess neighborhood makeup, participants indicated the ethnic composition of their town of residence on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (“All residents are of the same ethnic group as I am”) to 5 (“All residents are of a different ethnic group than I am”) (e.g., Piekut & Valentine, 2016). Higher scores indicated a greater presence of outgroup members in the local environment. Frequency of traveling abroad was assessed by asking participants to report the number of times they had traveled abroad in the past five years (e.g., Petrović & Zlatković, 2009). Prior schooling in ethnoculturally diverse classrooms was assessed with the item “Have you had classmates of other ethnicities in all your years of study (primary, secondary, university education)?” (Mlinar & Krammer, 2021). Participants responded with No, never; Yes, a little; Yes, a lot. Close intergroup friendship was measured with the item “How many close friends of a different ethnicity than yours do you have?” (Berry, 2017; Mlinar & Krammer, 2021). Participants indicated the number of close friends of a different ethnicity from their own.

3. Results

3.1. Preservice Preschool Teachers’ Endorsement of MTC Standards

Preservice preschool teachers showed high endorsement of standards related to equity-driven classroom practice (M = 5.24, SD = 0.71; Md = 5.33; range: 3.33–6.00) and multicultural teaching knowledge (M = 5.03, SD = 0.70; Md = 5.20; range: 3.00–6.00). However, endorsement of standards related to multicultural content implementation (M = 4.44, SD = 0.87; Md = 4.40; range: 2.00–6.00) is lower at the descriptive level compared with the other two dimensions.

We conducted a paired-samples t-test in SPSS 29.0.0 to determine whether there are significant differences in the endorsement of standards across the three dimensions. As shown in

Table 1. Results of Paired-samples t-tests comparing the endorsement of standards of the three dimensions of MTC.

	t	df	p	d
Multicultural content implementation— Equity-driven classroom practice	−10.03	87	<0.001	0.75
Multicultural content implementation—Multicultural teaching knowledge	−7.02	87	<0.001	0.79
Equity-driven classroom practice—Multicultural teaching knowledge	3.07	87	0.001	0.64

Note. The p values between groups are Bonferroni-corrected, that is we evaluated them against α = 5%/3 = 1.67%.

, the Bonferroni-corrected difference in the endorsement of standards among all three dimensions is statistically significant. The practical significance of these differences, computed with Cohen’s d, indicates medium effect sizes (d ≥ 0.5), with the difference between standards related to multicultural content implementation and multicultural teaching knowledge being the largest.

3.2. Antecedents of Preservice Preschool Teachers’ Endorsement of MTC Standards

The antecedents of preservice preschool teachers’ endorsement of MTC standards were assessed for each of the three dimensions: equity-driven classroom practice, multicultural teaching knowledge, and multicultural content implementation. All correlations are presented in

Table 2. Multicultural teaching competence standards dimensions, multicultural attitudes, multicultural ideology, intergroup contact predictors (i.e., participants’ neighborhood makeup, prior schooling in ethnoculturally diverse classrooms, frequency of traveling abroad, close intergroup friendships), intercorrelations (sig. correlations with p < 0.05 in bold).

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
(1) Equity-driven classroom practice	-	0.583	0.558	0.485	0.293	0.120	−0.055	0.005	0.143
(2) Multicultural teaching knowledge		-	0.505	0.567	0.240	−0.126	−0.058	−0.097	−0.008
(3) Multicultural content implementation			-	0.538	0.468	−0.082	−0.105	−0.029	0.279
(4) Multicultural attitudes				-
(5) Multicultural ideology				0.525	-
(6) Neighborhood makeup				0.102	−0.079	-
(7) Prior schooling in ethnoculturally diverse classrooms				−0.075	−0.192	0.363	-
(8) Frequency of travelling abroad				−0.026	−0.078	0.378	0.210	-
(9) Close intergroup friendship				0.202	0.133	0.285	−0.032	0.096	-

, and the regression analyses are reported in

Table 3. Regression analyses for predicting the three dimensions of multicultural teaching competence standards. The predictors were participants’ multicultural attitudes, multicultural ideology, intergroup contact predictors (i.e., participants’ neighborhood makeup, prior schooling in ethnoculturally diverse classrooms, frequency of traveling abroad, and close intergroup friendships). The predictors were added step by step. Standardized regression weights, the total amount of explained variance and its increase are reported for each step. The semipartial correlations are given for the final model (sr). Significant (p < 0.05) parameters and explained variances are reported in bold.

			Multicultural Attitudes	Multicultural Ideology	Neighborhood Makeup	Prior Schooling in Ethnoculturally Diverse Classrooms	Close Intergroup Friendship	Frequency of Traveling Abroad	R2	∆R2
Equity-driven classroom practice	Model 1	β	0.485						0.227
	Model 2	β	0.458	0.052					0.220	0.002
	Model 3	β	0.437	0.059	0.092	−0.043	−0.007	0.020	0.190	0.008
		sr	0.364	0.049	0.077	−0.039	−0.007	0.019
Multicultural teaching knowledge	Model 1	β	0.567						0.313
	Model 2	β	0.608	−0.079					0.310	0.005
	Model 3	β	0.657	−0.104	−0.189	0.042	−0.019	−0.070	0.324	0.046
		sr	0.547	−0.087	−0.157	0.038	−0.017	−0.065
Multicultural content implementation	Model 1	β	0.538						0.281	-
	Model 2	β	0.403	0.257					0.321	0.048
	Model 3	β	0.399	0.224	−0.199	0.038	0.044	0.222	0.348	0.056
		sr	0.332	0.187	−0.165	0.035	0.041	0.207

.

3.2.1. Antecedents of Preservice Preschool Teachers’ Endorsement of Equity-Driven Classroom Practice Standards

The results showed that multicultural attitudes accounted for 22.7% of the variance of equity-driven classroom practice standards (cf. Model 1: β = 0.485, p < 0.001). Adding further predictors above and beyond multicultural attitudes did not increase the explained variance (Model 2: ∆R² = 0.002, F [1,85] = 0.222, p = 0.638; Model 3: ∆R² = 0.008, F [4,81] = 0.224, p = 0.924). Furthermore, in the final model, only multicultural attitudes were a significant predictor (all ps ≥ 0.430).

3.2.2. Antecedents of Preservice Preschool Teachers’ Endorsement of Multicultural Teaching Knowledge Standards

The results showed that multicultural attitudes accounted for 31.3% of the variance of multicultural teaching knowledge standards (cf. Model 1: β = 0.567, p < 0.001). Adding further predictors above and beyond multicultural attitudes did not increase the explained variance (Model 2: ∆R² = 0.005, F [1,85] = 0.574, p = 0.451; Model 3: ∆R² = 0.046, F [4,81] = 1.466, p = 0.22). Furthermore, in the final model, only multicultural attitudes were a significant predictor (all ps ≥ 0.079).

3.2.3. Antecedents of Preservice Preschool Teachers’ Endorsement of Multicultural Content Implementation Standards

The results showed that multicultural attitudes accounted for 28.1% of the variance of multicultural content implementation standards (cf. Model 1: β = 0.538, p < 0.001). Adding multicultural ideology (cf. Model 2: β = 0.257, p < 0.015) further increased the explained variance of multicultural content implementation standards (Model 2: ∆R² = 0.048, F [1,85] = 6.138, p = 0.015). Adding further predictors did not increase the explained variance (Model 3: ∆R² = 0.056, F [4,81] = 1.866, p = 0.124). Closer inspection of the predictors revealed that, of the four predictors added in Model 3, only one was related to multicultural content implementation standards, namely the frequency of traveling abroad (r = 0.279). In the final model (Model 3: R² = 0.348, F [6,81] = 8.737, p < 0.001), this predictor had a significant influence (Model 3: β = 0.222, p = 0.019). Accordingly, we concluded that the frequency of traveling abroad was also related to multicultural content implementation standards.

4. Discussion

4.1. Preservice Preschool Teachers’ Endorsement of MTC Standards: Implications for Initial Preschool Teacher Education and Continuing Professional Development

The discussion of preservice preschool teachers’ endorsement of MTC standards is based on the three-factor solution yielded in this study. Although the Slovenian adapted version of the MTCS did not replicate the original two-factor structure proposed by Spanierman et al. (2011), the resulting structure still points to the broader distinction between knowledge and skills/behavioral dimensions of MTC. Specifically, one factor was clearly knowledge-oriented (multicultural teaching knowledge), while the other two were more behavior- or practice-oriented. Of these two, one reflected a more declarative orientation toward equitable preschool practice (equity-driven classroom practice), and the other a more concrete enactment of diversity through pedagogical content, materials, and activities (multicultural content implementation). In this respect, our results are partly consistent with earlier work (Leung & Hue, 2017, 2020), indicating the need for further research, especially among in-service preschool teachers, to examine whether a similar differentiation is also found when MTC is studied in other preschool teacher populations and whether the Slovenian context indeed requires a more differentiated understanding of the behavioral dimension of MTC.

The results of this study indicate relatively high endorsement across all three dimensions of MTC standards, but with a clear gradient: endorsement was highest for equity-driven classroom practice (M = 5.24), followed by multicultural teaching knowledge (M = 5.03), and lowest for multicultural content implementation (M = 4.44). Thus, our first hypothesis of generally high endorsement of MTC standards was confirmed. At the same time, the second hypothesis was only partly supported, as standards related to multicultural teaching knowledge were endorsed more strongly than multicultural content implementation standards, but not more strongly than equity-driven classroom practice standards. In line with the conceptualization of endorsement in this paper, the results suggest that preservice preschool teachers generally regard MTC standards as professionally important and worthwhile, which may in turn support their later prioritization, development, and enactment of MTC in practice (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Watt & Richardson, 2015; Yu et al., 2023).

Most notably, multicultural content implementation was the least strongly endorsed of the three dimensions, even though it refers to a particularly important aspect of diversity-responsive preschool practice, namely the practical application of culturally sensitive strategies and interventions through everyday materials, activities, representations, and opportunities for children’s identities and voices to be recognized and heard (Shonfeld et al., 2025). This finding may indicate that future preschool teachers are less likely to prioritize further development and enactment of this MTC dimension, which can result in pedagogical approaches that do not sufficiently reflect or support ethnocultural diversity. Furthermore, as at least some participants in this study are already entering their careers by the time it is published, it is important to consider such dispositions when designing CPD programs. In this respect, the results concerning the antecedents of the three dimensions can be particularly informative.

That being said, some caution is still necessary when drawing the conclusion that the results are simply positive. There may also be a more critical interpretation. Regarding equity-driven classroom practice, it is important to note that in many European contexts, including Slovenia, equity is still commonly understood primarily in distributive terms, that is, as equal access to opportunities and resources (Lynch & Lodge, 2002; OECD, 2023a). However, this understanding can obscure, rather than ensure, the recognition and representation of diversity, leading to unequal treatment of ethnocultural minoritized groups. It may also coexist with difference- or color-blind approaches, which prioritize similarities, or even sameness, and avoid explicit engagement with differences (Mlinar & Peček, 2024). As earlier studies have shown, such approaches remain present in the education system, with teachers often assuming that discussing differences will reinforce the development of bias and conflicts (Husband, 2012; Chakir & Peček, 2014; Derman-Sparks et al., 2020a).

Read this way, the high endorsement of equity-driven classroom practice does not necessarily indicate that participants already understand equity in a diversity-recognizing sense; rather, it may reflect a more general and socially desirable commitment to fairness. Therefore, further research is needed to examine more directly how preservice preschool teachers understand equity-driven classroom practice and which pedagogical meanings they attach to it (e.g., through qualitative interviews, vignette-based designs, or later observation of practice). This would help clarify whether high endorsement of this dimension reflects an understanding of equity grounded not only in distributive equality but also in the recognition of diversity, or instead a more general commitment to fairness that may still coexist with difference-blind assumptions. Nevertheless, the findings of the present study suggest that IPTE and CPD should not treat equity as self-explanatory, but should prepare preschool teachers to enact it in ways that also include the recognition of diversity as a value in their pedagogical work.

The relatively high endorsement of multicultural teaching knowledge is, by contrast, less surprising. Research on both preservice and in-service teachers indicates that many view specialized knowledge about diversity as essential for working effectively with minoritized children and youth, while at the same time feeling less prepared to implement culturally responsive practices (Chakir & Peček, 2014; Florian & Rouse, 2009; Medarić et al., 2021; Peček & Macura-Milovanović, 2012; R. Taylor et al., 2016). In this respect, if IPTE is to strengthen the MTC standards that were least endorsed in this study, the acquisition of multicultural teaching knowledge needs to be accompanied by self-reflection. Preservice preschool teachers need opportunities to reflect on their perceptions of other cultures and their own cultural identity, as well as to express their biases and fears (Turnšek, 2013, 2016; Chakir & Peček, 2014; Chiner et al., 2015; Ulbricht et al., 2024; Shonfeld et al., 2025). However, acquiring this knowledge should not be limited to specially designed courses but should be integrated into the broader frameworks and standards of IPTE and CPD throughout the entire curriculum (OECD, 2023a). Besides that, organized practicum experiences and guided interactions with children and families from different, particularly minoritized, backgrounds may be especially important, not least because such experiences can strengthen preservice teachers’ sense of preparedness for diversity-responsive pedagogy (S. V. Taylor & Sobel, 2001; Forlin et al., 2007; García & Kleyn, 2013; Chakir & Peček, 2014; Potts & Cutrim Schmid, 2022; Shank Lauwo et al., 2022). This aligns with the conclusion of Romijn et al. (2021) that developing MTC during initial teacher education is best supported by an embedded, contextual approach, where guided reflection is connected to opportunities for practical application.

4.2. Antecedents of Preservice Preschool Teachers’ Endorsement of MTC Standards: Implications for Initial Preschool Teacher Education and Continuing Professional Development

Among the six antecedents included in our analysis, only three were related to at least one dimension of MTC standards, while multicultural attitudes emerged as the only antecedent associated with all three dimensions. Our third hypothesis was therefore confirmed. This finding most clearly supports the view that attitudes serve as an important basis for the development of multicultural teaching knowledge and skills (Chen, 2017; Deardorff, 2006; Spanierman et al., 2011). The present study suggests that this role is already evident at the level of endorsement of the standards underpinning these dimensions. In this sense, the findings indicate that preservice preschool teachers’ orientations toward multiculturalism in educational settings may also guide their judgments of MTC standards as professionally important and worth pursuing, and thus plausibly shape what they are likely to notice and prioritize in their later everyday ECEC practice.

Multicultural ideology and frequency of traveling abroad were specifically associated with endorsement of multicultural content implementation standards, thus only partially confirming the fourth and fifth hypotheses. This is noteworthy because multicultural content implementation was the least strongly endorsed dimension in our sample. Taken together, these findings suggest that standards requiring deliberate and visible pedagogical choices about representation, activities, and materials may depend not only on multicultural attitudes specific to the educational context but also on broader ideological commitments to diversity and on experiences that broaden perspectives beyond the immediate national context.

Of the three dimensions, multicultural content implementation most directly concerns what becomes visible in the preschool setting: which stories are told, which materials are selected, which cultures are represented, and whether diversity is actively included in everyday pedagogical work. It is therefore understandable that preservice preschool teachers who more strongly endorse multicultural ideology also place greater value on standards requiring diversity to be made visible in pedagogical content, materials, and activities. In this respect, the finding is particularly important in the Slovenian educational context, where the dominant ideology among teachers is mainly assimilationist, meaning teachers expect ethnoculturally minoritized learners to assimilate into the majority culture by abandoning their original culture (Peček & Munda, 2015; Medarić et al., 2021; Mlinar, 2021). This view is particularly problematic because it is associated with higher levels of prejudice toward minoritized ethnocultural groups (Derman-Sparks et al., 2020a) and aligns with a difference-blind ideology, that is, with views that regard diversity as something not to be publicly recognized or pedagogically addressed, but rather downplayed in favor of sameness or adaptation to the majority (Mlinar & Krammer, 2021). For IPTE and CPD, this finding suggests that including systemic reflection on (preservice) preschool teachers’ views on diversity and the ideological assumptions that inform their pedagogical choices, including approaches and materials, could be beneficial (Hachfeld et al., 2015; Derman-Sparks et al., 2020a; Mlinar & Krammer, 2021; Mlinar & Peček, 2023).

The relationship with frequency of traveling abroad provides only limited support for our fifth hypothesis regarding intergroup contact and should therefore be interpreted with caution. One possible explanation is that the more students travel abroad, the more they are exposed to different sociocultural contexts, making issues of language, representation, and diversity more noticeable (Bourdieu, 2018; European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2023). This increased awareness may, in turn, lead to greater support for valuing multicultural content implementation standards. At the same time, the fact that other contact indicators—neighborhood makeup, prior schooling in ethnoculturally diverse classrooms, and close intergroup friendships—were not associated with endorsement of MTC standards suggests that the mere quantity of contact in a national context may not be sufficient, and that the quality and conditions of contact may be more important (Davies et al., 2011; Pettigrew et al., 2011; Paluck et al., 2019).

In light of our findings, international mobility may be valuable, but it should not be understood narrowly. Since many students cannot participate in physical mobility due to financial constraints, work and caregiving responsibilities, or employment in educational institutions because of staff shortages, more inclusive forms, such as virtual mobility, deserve greater attention (Council of the European Union, 2024; Schmuck et al., 2025). This is especially relevant for institutions like the faculty from which our participants were recruited, where participation in Erasmus exchanges among preschool education students has traditionally been very low (Gracar, 2024).

4.3. Including Principles of Anti-Bias Education and Intersectionality in Initial Preschool Teacher Education and Continuing Professional Development

In light of the findings of the present study, we argue that the teacher education continuum may benefit from clearer frameworks that make MTC more concrete and actionable in practice, while preventing equity work from collapsing into sameness, difference-blindness, or assimilationist enactment under the banner of “treating everyone the same.” What is needed, in other words, is a stronger focus on curricular enactment, as everyday decisions about materials, routines, language practices, expectations, and representations are the means through which institutionalized inequities in ECEC settings may be reproduced, even when equity is endorsed at a more declarative level (Hachfeld et al., 2015; Derman-Sparks et al., 2020a; Medarić et al., 2021; Mlinar & Peček, 2024). By making multicultural work more concrete, assessable, and routine, such frameworks can increase their perceived professional importance and usefulness, while also reducing perceived costs, such as uncertainty about how to proceed, fear of making mistakes, or anticipated conflict (cf. Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). In this way, they support not only the further development of MTC but also the positioning of its standards as valuable professional priorities in which preschool teachers are more likely to invest and implement in their work.

From this perspective, anti-bias education and intersectionality appear particularly useful as guiding principles for both IPTE and CPD. They should not be treated as “add-ons”, but should be structurally integrated within subject didactics, practicum, and professional learning to strengthen the development and valuing of MTC standards, especially those related to multicultural content implementation (Tarman & Tarman, 2011; see also Derman-Sparks et al., 2020a; Varsik & Gorochovskij, 2023; Mlinar & Peček, 2024).

Anti-bias education is a foundational pedagogical approach that permeates everyday kindergarten life, supporting children in developing a positive identity and comfort and joy with diversity, while also fostering their ability to recognize unfairness and respond to it in developmentally appropriate ways. In this respect, it explicitly counters the misconception that discussing and learning about differences creates prejudice, emphasizing instead that prejudice is learned from prejudice and from how adults—in this case, preschool teachers—respond to diversity and differences (Derman-Sparks & Olsen Edwards, 2016; Turnšek, 2016; Derman-Sparks et al., 2020a, 2020b; Mlinar, 2021; Mlinar & Peček, 2024). Anti-bias education thus provides concrete pedagogical guidance for translating general commitments to equity into daily interactions, routines, and curricular choices. This is especially relevant in light of our findings, which suggest a need for more explicit pedagogical support in concretely addressing diversity in everyday ECEC practice. Recent research indicates that anti-bias-based training can strengthen educators’ multicultural competence, attitudes, and self-awareness (O’Donnell et al., 2024; Banko-Bal & Akman, 2025).

Intersectionality complements anti-bias education by offering an analytical lens that sheds light on how children and families are positioned within multiple, interacting social categories and, importantly, within intersecting systems of power and oppression (Crenshaw et al., 1991; Cho et al., 2013). In this sense, intersectionality is not merely about adding identity categories or acknowledging the multiplicity of identities. Instead, it highlights that vulnerability and marginalization are often reproduced through overlapping structures and through policy or pedagogical responses that address only one axis at a time, thereby rendering some experiences and struggles invisible (Crenshaw et al., 1991; Lorde, 2007; Collins, 2019). In ECEC, this matters, as routines, activities, and materials may subtly privilege dominant norms (e.g., regarding language, family structures, gendered expectations, or “appropriate” behavior), which can influence unequal treatment and participation (Cho et al., 2013; Derman-Sparks et al., 2020a; Mlinar & Peček, 2024). An intersectional perspective can help preschool teachers view MTC as a form of professional responsibility to ensure participation and fairness in contexts shaped, implicitly or explicitly, by power relations (cf. Leckie & Buser De, 2020; Varsik & Gorochovskij, 2023).

In relation to the three dimensions identified in this study, these two frameworks provide particularly relevant, practice-oriented guidance. First, multicultural teaching knowledge is enhanced not only by gaining a theoretical understanding of various aspects of diversity and related pedagogical approaches, but also by learning how bias is acquired, reinforced, and normalized, how institutional norms define belonging, and how structural inequities influence participation. Second, equity-driven kindergarten classroom practice needs to be enacted through recognition and both institutional and teacher responsibility, rather than through difference-blindness, as the latter can undermine pedagogical work adapted to cultural diversity. Third, multicultural content implementation requires that preservice preschool teachers learn to integrate diversity into their everyday practice, rather than reducing it to tokenistic occasional celebrations or “heroes and holidays” contributions that leave the mainstream curriculum unchanged (Hachfeld et al., 2015; Turnšek, 2016; Derman-Sparks et al., 2020a; Mlinar, 2021). An intersectional lens can further illuminate how representation and curriculum are linked to power—specifically, whose knowledge counts, who is positioned as “normal,” and which differences are treated as legitimate. This is particularly important in ECEC, where institutional routines may silently organize hierarchies even when explicit prejudice is declaratively rejected (Cho et al., 2013; Derman-Sparks et al., 2020a; Mlinar & Peček, 2023).

Operationalizing anti-bias education and intersectionality in IPTE and CPD therefore requires recurring, practice-connected tasks that are explicitly assessed in coursework, portfolios, and practicum evaluations. This includes, for example, anti-bias audits of materials and routines (visibility/invisibility of families and identities; avoidance of the “tourist approach”); structured reflection on critical incidents from practicum that connect daily interactions and institutional routines to bias and power; and intersectional case work in which preservice preschool teachers “map” a child’s situation across multiple identity dimensions and structural constraints, and plan pedagogical responses accordingly (Turnšek, 2013, 2016; Derman-Sparks et al., 2020a; Mlinar, 2021). Such iterative engagement aligns with recent anti-bias teacher training research, which emphasizes sustained reflection, dialogue, and field-based practice, rather than treating anti-bias work solely as a matter of theoretical knowledge (Derman-Sparks et al., 2020a; O’Donnell et al., 2024).

Since preschool teachers’ enactment of MTC develops mainly within the workplace (Romijn et al., 2021), CPD should be designed accordingly, especially given findings that teachers at different levels of education receive inadequate or insufficient training to respond effectively and appropriately to diverse children and families (Sedmak et al., 2020; Medarić et al., 2021; Mlinar, 2021; OECD, 2023b). Therefore, CPD should not be limited to one-off multicultural seminars or workshops but should be designed as sustained professional learning supported by the institution and oriented toward critical analysis, reflection, and changes in daily practice. This includes, for example, inquiry cycles involving environment audits, material selection, routine redesign, and responsive communication with families, while explicitly using anti-bias and intersectional lenses so that representation and equity remain connected to power and institutional responsibility. For this, structural and financial support are not peripheral but necessary if anti-bias and intersectional principles are to be enacted consistently rather than episodically, and if multicultural content implementation standards, in particular, are to become a professional priority in ECEC practice (e.g., Turnšek, 2013).

5. Conclusions

This study contributes to research on MTC in several ways. First, by conceptualizing and assessing preservice preschool teachers’ endorsement of MTC standards, it extends work on multicultural competence to its evaluative-motivational dimension—that is, the extent to which such standards are regarded as professionally important, useful, and worthwhile within IPTE. This is particularly relevant in contexts such as Slovenia, where preservice preschool teachers do not yet carry out autonomous pedagogical work in kindergartens and where the role of IPTE is especially to lay the foundations for the later development and enactment of MTC in practice. Second, the study proposes an adapted version of the MTCS for assessing such endorsement and identifies a three-factor structure of the adapted scale: multicultural teaching knowledge, equity-driven classroom practice, and multicultural content implementation. While this does not reproduce the original two-factor solution, it still points to the broader distinction between knowledge- and skills-oriented dimensions of MTC. Third, the findings show that preservice preschool teachers generally endorse MTC standards highly, but multicultural content implementation is endorsed less strongly than the other two dimensions. In addition, the study offers a more nuanced picture of the antecedents of such endorsement, showing that multicultural attitudes are related to all three dimensions, whereas multicultural ideology and traveling abroad are related more selectively. In this way, the study contributes not only to the assessment of endorsement of MTC standards, but also to current discussions on the context dependence and cross-cultural adaptation of multicultural competence constructs (Spanierman et al., 2011; Genkova et al., 2025; Shonfeld et al., 2025; Veerman & Chevalking, 2025).

At the same time, further validation of the adapted instrument is necessary, particularly regarding its factor structure. Additionally, this study supports the further implementation of the Slovenian versions of the TMAS and MIS, which showed good psychometric performance in our data, indicating their relevance for the Slovenian socio-cultural context. Nevertheless, additional evidence from diverse samples and settings would strengthen confidence in their robustness.

Apart from this, the study has some limitations. Despite the validity and reliability of the instruments used, it should be noted that they are self-report measures and therefore subject to socially desirable responses or impression management, especially since they assess socially sensitive topics (Paulhus, 2017; Lüke & Grosche, 2018). Participants may have aligned their responses with perceived professional norms rather than their actual views. Future studies should consider including social desirability scales or using designs that reduce response bias (e.g., factorial survey experiments; Auspurg & Hinz, 2015). Although the study included preservice preschool teachers from the largest faculty of education in Slovenia, the sample composition and recruitment context limit generalizability. The sample was predominantly female, reflecting the sex distribution in the profession, but this limits the ability to investigate possible gender differences and may affect the performance of the adapted MTCS. In addition, the sample was recruited from only one country and one institution. Replication across institutions and countries, as well as tests of measurement invariance across relevant subgroups (e.g., gender, study program), would strengthen confidence in the findings, particularly since recent research continues to indicate contextual variation in the functioning of multicultural competence measures (e.g., Genkova et al., 2025). Finally, the study is cross-sectional; therefore, causality cannot be inferred.

Several directions for future research follow from these limitations and findings. Future studies should scrutinize the underlying causal mechanisms more directly to provide stronger support for planning interventions in IPTE and CPD. Including in-service preschool teachers would be valuable for investigating how endorsement relates to practice under actual institutional constraints and supports. Longitudinal studies would also be beneficial to assess the extent to which endorsement of MTC standards later translates into the development and enactment of MTC, and under what conditions, or to determine whether endorsement of standards within IPTE changes over time. Future research could also include additional variables, such as socioeconomic status, immigrant background, and year of study.

Furthermore, among the intergroup contact indicators included in this study, only traveling abroad was related to the endorsement of MTC standards, and only within one dimension. As one possible interpretation is that indicators of contact quantity (e.g., neighborhood composition) may be weaker predictors than contact quality, considering Allport’s (1954) contact conditions may provide additional insight (for more detial see for example, Mlinar & Krammer, 2021). Along these lines, future studies should examine more directly how different forms of intergroup contact, including school placements in ethnoculturally diverse kindergartens, are experienced, which aspects of such contact are perceived as meaningful, and under what conditions they become relevant for valuing MTC standards.