The Influence of Gender and Institution on the Construction of an Intercultural and Inclusive Music Education

Abstract

This study analyzes students’ perceptions of cultural diversity in music education in the south of Spain and the northern region of the African continent, specifically in Andalusia, Ceuta, and Melilla—territories characterized by significant cultural and linguistic heterogeneity. Music, understood as a universal pedagogical tool, is approached as a strategic resource to promote educational inclusion and the development of intercultural competencies. The main objective was to examine the influence of gender, type of educational institution, and attendance at conservatories and/or music schools on students’ perceptions of intercultural inclusion in musical contexts. The sample consisted of 645 students aged between 11 and 54 years (M = 13.86; SD = 3.90), enrolled in primary schools, secondary schools, and professional and higher conservatories. Regarding gender, 55.2% identified as female, 43.6% as male, and 1.2% as non-binary. Data were analyzed using SPSS software (version 28). After verifying non-normality through the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, non-parametric tests (Mann–Whitney U and Kruskal–Wallis H) were applied to the variables of gender, type of institution, and attendance at conservatories and/or music schools. The results show that female students tend to express more favorable perceptions regarding equality in musical ability and intercultural learning. Furthermore, students attending Conservatories and Primary Schools exhibit more positive perceptions than those in Secondary Schools. Attendance at conservatories enhances perceptions of equality in musical ability, though it does not necessarily improve intercultural relations or conflict resolution. In conclusion, the research confirms the potential of music as a vehicle for educational inclusion and the development of intercultural competencies, highlighting the need for inclusive and critical pedagogical approaches that respond to students’ cultural diversity.

1. Introduction

In educational contexts, it is essential to recognize and value diversity as a central element of students’ multilingual identities (Forbes et al., 2021; Rutgers et al., 2024). Ignoring this dimension—as has occurred in several European contexts—can generate inequalities in the academic performance of students who navigate multiple languages (Fisher et al., 2022).

This article examines cultural diversity in southern Spain, a region historically shaped by the convergence of multiple cultures and traditions (Venegas et al., 2023). Andalusia, Ceuta, and Melilla, in particular, have long served as crossroads of civilizations—from Roman and Arab periods to contemporary migratory flows—creating a rich and complex sociocultural landscape (García-Lastra & Sierra, 2021; Velasco et al., 2022). Today, this diversity is evident in classrooms where students from varied cultural, linguistic, and national backgrounds learn together (McClintic, 2022). Such contexts present both challenges and opportunities for building inclusive and intercultural education (Egea-Hernández et al., 2025).

The southern region of Spain thus represents an area of remarkable cultural and linguistic richness, shaped by centuries of exchange, migration, and coexistence (Venegas et al., 2023). Traditionally a bridge between Europe, Africa, and the Arab world, this territory has developed a plural sociocultural fabric visible in everyday practices, artistic expression, and, importantly, education (Segura-Robles & Parra-González, 2019). The growing cultural diversity in schools—especially in border and urban areas such as Ceuta and Melilla—poses particular challenges for educational systems and calls for pedagogical practices attentive to students’ cultural and linguistic pluralism (López, 2008; García-Carmona et al., 2021).

Within this landscape, institutions that provide music instruction—whether in compulsory education or specialized training—also reflect these realities. Primary and secondary schools, professional and higher conservatories, and music and dance schools bring together students from diverse cultural backgrounds, languages, and life trajectories (de Villiers, 2021). While this heterogeneity enriches the educational environment, it also calls for rethinking pedagogical approaches, particularly where repertoires and methods remain rooted in Western, Eurocentric paradigms that may not recognize or reflect students’ identities (Chandransu, 2019; Du & Leung, 2021).

Music, due to its universal nature and emotional resonance, offers a powerful pedagogical tool in multicultural contexts (Crawford, 2020). As a non-verbal language, it allows communication beyond linguistic barriers and supports the inclusion of migrant students who may still be acquiring proficiency in the language of instruction (Chandransu, 2019). Research has highlighted the cognitive, emotional, and social benefits of music education (Miendlarzewska & Trost, 2014; Román-Caballero et al., 2022; Zhu, 2022), particularly in skills such as memory, attention, coordination, and emotional regulation (Varner, 2024). These advantages are especially relevant in diverse settings, where music can become a shared space of encounter, expression, and recognition (Muñoz & Mas, 2017; Guan et al., 2022).

In music classrooms across southern Spain, the presence of students from diverse cultural backgrounds creates opportunities to adopt pedagogical practices that embrace pluralism (Liu, 2023). Yet curricula often remain centered exclusively on Western classical music, marginalizing or excluding other traditions such as Maghrebi, Latin American, or Andalusian folklore (Del Mar Bernabé & Martínez-Bello, 2021; Del Mar Bernabé-Villodre et al., 2024). Such exclusion can perpetuate cultural invisibility and negatively impact students’ self-esteem and sense of belonging (Mellizo et al., 2022). In response, some schools and educators are incorporating broader repertoires and adopting collaborative, creative, and participatory methods that foster respect for difference and intercultural dialogue (Villodre, 2020).

Collective music-making—through choirs, ensembles, or bands—also provides fertile ground for developing social and intercultural skills (Tomé-Fernández & Bravo-Yebra, 2024). Teamwork, active listening, and shared responsibility nurture inclusive dynamics within and beyond the classroom (Bartleet et al., 2020). This potential is particularly relevant in Ceuta and Melilla, where intergroup tensions may surface in schools (Cremades et al., 2010; Queirolo, 2021). In such contexts, intercultural music projects have proven effective in fostering mutual understanding, reducing prejudice, and strengthening social cohesion, while validating family and community traditions as legitimate forms of school learning (Segura-Robles & Parra-González, 2019).

In Andalusia, where diversity also characterizes many urban and rural schools, there is an urgent need for music education models that reject cultural homogenization and promote inclusive pedagogy (Thapa & Rodríguez-Quiles, 2022). This requires both a critical review of curricular content and adequate teacher training in intercultural competencies, enabling educators to approach diversity as an educational asset rather than as a barrier to learning (Juan-Morera et al., 2022; Mateos-Moreno, 2025).

In short, the cultural diversity of southern Spain presents both challenges and opportunities for music education (Ben, 2018). Rather than being a source of conflict, this pluralism can serve as a powerful pedagogical resource for developing not only artistic skills but also intercultural competences, which are essential for global citizenship in the 21st century (Martín-Sanz et al., 2025). This article explores how music education in diverse contexts, particularly in Andalusia, Ceuta and Melilla, can contribute to inclusion and the development of intercultural skills among students (Cores Torres & Rodríguez, 2022; Bautista et al., 2023).

2. Theoretical Framework

2.1. Educational Inclusion as a Pedagogical and Social Principle

Educational inclusion has become one of the foundational pillars in current educational policies and pedagogical practices, both nationally and internationally (Kefallinou et al., 2020). This approach is grounded in the premise that all students—regardless of their ethnic, cultural, linguistic, or socioeconomic background, or individual abilities—are entitled to high-quality education under equal conditions (Moriña, 2016; Uthus & Qvortrup, 2024). Inclusion involves not only physical access to schooling but also active, meaningful, and equitable participation in all aspects of the educational process (UNESCO, 2006; Kohout-Diaz, 2023; Filippou et al., 2025).

From a pedagogical perspective, educational inclusion requires transforming school systems to respond effectively to student diversity and to eliminate barriers that hinder learning and participation (Moriña, 2020; Cotán et al., 2021). This entails adapting curricula, teaching methods, assessment strategies, and school organization to promote a culture of respect, recognition, and social justice (Florian & Beaton, 2018). Inclusion is thus understood not as a strategy aimed solely at specific groups, but as a framework that enhances educational quality for all students (Väyrynen & Paksuniemi, 2018).

In culturally diverse settings—such as those found in southern Spain, especially in regions like Andalusia, Ceuta, and Melilla—educational inclusion takes on an intercultural dimension. The presence of students from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds demands pedagogical approaches that value such pluralism as an asset rather than a barrier (Joseph, 2012; Kang, 2021). In this context, music emerges as a particularly powerful tool for fostering inclusion, as it enables non-verbal expression, facilitates mutual recognition, and encourages collaborative dynamics (Martínez-Hierrezuelo & Del Mar Bernabé-Villodre, 2023).

Educational inclusion must also be understood as a matter of social justice, insofar as its absence can generate structural inequalities that negatively affect the performance, self-esteem, and sense of belonging of the most vulnerable students (Shaeffer, 2019). Within this framework, schools must rise to the challenge of becoming spaces of equity, where all students—including those with migratory trajectories or diverse cultural identities—can develop their potential without experiencing discrimination or exclusion (Pantić & Florian, 2015; Domingo-Martos et al., 2022).

2.2. Gender and Interculturality: Differences in Student Perception and Practice

The relationship between gender and interculturality in educational contexts has received increasing scholarly attention in recent decades (Zhang, 2024). Multiple studies have shown that students’ perceptions of inclusion, empathy toward diversity, and willingness to engage in intercultural relationships often vary significantly by gender—differences shaped by gendered socialization processes, cultural stereotypes, and internalized educational norms from early childhood (Gregoriou, 2013; Solhaug & Kristensen, 2019; Gutiérrez-Santiuste & Ritacco-Real, 2024; Tovar-Correal & Pedraja-Rejas, 2025).

Research suggests that female students tend to perceive more positively the idea that all individuals possess equal abilities to learn music and are more likely to experience deeper learning related to cultural diversity through music (Miettinen, 2020). These gender-based differences may be linked to social factors that promote stronger communication skills, heightened sensitivity to others, and caring attitudes among women—traits that support the development of intercultural competencies (Miettinen et al., 2018; Hallam et al., 2018).

From an educational standpoint, it is plausible that girls receive more consistent messages in school settings encouraging cooperation, empathy, and respect for diversity, which may influence their understanding of cultural inclusion in the classroom (Westerlund & Partti, 2018; Kelley, 2020). Music, as an artistic activity that fosters emotional expression and collaborative work, can enhance such experiences by deepening students’ identification with intercultural and egalitarian values (Palkki & Sauerland, 2018; Nonte et al., 2021).

These findings align with previous research showing that musical practices can promote social integration and respect for diversity, particularly when pedagogical approaches value students’ cultural backgrounds and encourage equitable participation (Li et al., 2023; Cao et al., 2025). However, this also calls for critical reflection on how educational contexts might reproduce gendered expectations that shape students’ engagement with interculturality (Baughman & Baumgartner, 2025; Hoad et al., 2025).

Consequently, it is essential to incorporate a critical gender perspective in intercultural music education (Borgström Källén & Ferm Almqvist, 2024; Menon et al., 2025). This approach makes gendered differences visible, challenges stereotypes, and ensures that both girls and boys develop inclusive attitudes and the skills necessary to live in culturally diverse societies (Werner & Kuusi, 2023). Music, as a shared and collaborative activity, offers an ideal space for the collective construction of democratic, egalitarian, and intercultural values (Olesko & Clauhs, 2023).

2.3. Interculturality in Specialized and General Educational Contexts: Conservatories vs. Schools

The type of educational setting in which students are enrolled significantly influences their perception of intercultural inclusion and their appreciation of cultural diversity (Crawford, 2020). Previous studies have identified marked differences among educational institutions, highlighting that students from Professional Music Conservatories and Primary Schools tend to express more favorable perceptions regarding the equality of musical abilities among individuals and the value of cultural diversity when compared to students in Secondary Schools (Bartleet et al., 2020; Yoo, 2022; Thomson, 2024).

These findings suggest that music-specialized educational contexts—such as conservatories—offer a more favorable environment for cultivating inclusive attitudes (Pang, 2024; Chiba & Hebert, 2024). This may be due in part to the cooperative and artistic nature of music instruction, which relies on interaction, active listening, and appreciation of collaborative work (Hall, 2024). Likewise, in primary education, project-based learning, cross-curricular approaches, and stronger emotional bonds with teachers may foster more open and equitable perceptions of diversity (Weatherly, 2024). Conversely, in secondary schools, perceptions of diversity and intercultural inclusion tend to be lower (Sorkos & Hajisoteriou, 2020; Schachner et al., 2021). This may be linked to factors such as more rigid curricula, subject-based fragmentation, larger class sizes, or limited teacher training in intercultural competencies (Cummins, 2015; Pérez-Jorge et al., 2023).

Nevertheless, students’ perceptions of intercultural inclusion and their ability to manage diversity may vary depending on the type of institution and their academic level (Malizia & Jameson, 2018). Prior studies have found that students in Secondary Schools and Higher Conservatories tend to show more positive attitudes toward conflict resolution and mediation in diverse settings compared to students in Elementary and Professional Conservatories (Cortón-Heras et al., 2023). These differences may stem from greater cognitive and emotional maturity, as well as increased exposure to heterogeneous environments, which fosters the development of competencies for diversity management through dialogue and negotiation (Türk, 2017; Foltz, 2024).

Overall, perceptions of intercultural inclusion tend to be more positive in Elementary and Higher Conservatories, whereas Secondary Schools often report lower levels in this area (Ulbricht et al., 2022; David-Izvernar et al., 2025). This pattern reinforces the notion that educational context plays a crucial role in shaping attitudes toward cultural diversity (Kimmel & Volet, 2010). In particular, music-specialized settings and primary education appear especially conducive to fostering intercultural learning, as they promote collaborative, creative, and emotionally enriching experiences that encourage respect for and appreciation of diversity (Tawagi & Mak, 2015; Elias & Mansouri, 2023).

These findings suggest that institutional structure and pedagogical orientation—as well as students’ educational stage—are critical in shaping intercultural competencies and perceptions of inclusion (Barrett, 2018; Sales et al., 2023). Accordingly, it is vital to design targeted educational strategies that promote such skills across all levels, with special attention to contexts where intercultural attitudes may be less developed (de Hei et al., 2019; López-Rocha, 2020).

Thus, educational policy and pedagogical approaches must recognize the role of music-specialized settings and primary education in fostering cultural inclusion (Prest, 2019; Chaiwanichsiri, 2025). Strengthening intercultural music projects, diversifying repertoires, and enhancing teacher training in this domain are key strategic actions toward a more just, equitable, and culturally responsive education (Walden, 2020; Wang & Odena, 2025).

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Sample

A purposive sampling strategy was employed, selecting exclusively those educational institutions that expressed their willingness to participate in the study. The selected schools were located within the Autonomous Community of Andalusia and the Autonomous Cities of Ceuta and Melilla—territories chosen due to the cultural diversity that characterizes their educational environments.

The sample for this study consisted of N = 645 students. Questionnaires containing errors or incomplete responses were excluded from this phase of the research. Participants’ ages ranged from 11 to 54 years (M = 13.86; SD = 3.90). Regarding gender identity, 43.6% identified as male, 55.2% as female, and 1.2% as non-binary. Concerning their academic enrollment for the 2024–2025 school year, the majority of participants were enrolled in compulsory secondary education institutions (89.9%), while 7.7% were attending primary education and 2.4% were studying at higher music conservatories. Among primary and secondary students, 25.2% had previously attended or were currently attending music schools or conservatories, while 74.8% had no such educational experience.

3.2. Procedure

The present study was conducted after obtaining approval from the Ethics Committee of the University of Granada (Ref. 4850/CEIH/2025) and authorization from the administrative teams of the participating educational institutions. In addition, written informed consent was obtained from the legal guardians of all students. To ensure the fidelity of the instrument’s content, back-translation procedures were employed by bilingual experts, when necessary, without modifying or omitting any items from the original questionnaire.

The questionnaire was administered in print format to all students, who were informed beforehand about the voluntary and anonymous nature of their participation. A member of the research team was present throughout the administration. The estimated time to complete the instrument was approximately 45 min.

3.3. Instrument

The instrument employed for data collection was the Intercultural Inclusion for Students in Musical Contexts (EIICM) questionnaire. This tool was specifically designed to measure students’ perceptions of cultural inclusion across various types of educational institutions (in press). The questionnaire comprises 24 items distributed across five dimensions and meets established psychometric standards for validity and reliability. More specifically, it demonstrates a high internal consistency with a Cronbach’s alpha of α = 0.91.

The first dimension, Intercultural Competence in the School Environment, consists of 7 items and has an α = 0.90. The second dimension, Inclusion and Cultural Diversity in Music Learning, includes 6 items and yields an α = 0.70. The third dimension, Educational Equity, is composed of 5 items with an α = 0.70. The fourth dimension, Cultural Learning, comprises 3 items with an α = 0.60. Lastly, the fifth dimension, Social Interaction in Diverse Musical Contexts, also includes 3 items and has an α = 0.60.

Based on the evaluations of Aldahadha (2023) and Karimian and Chahartangi (2024), the instrument demonstrates a reliability coefficient that exceeds the recommended threshold of α ≥ 0.80, thus confirming its strong reliability.

3.4. Data Analysis

Data analysis was conducted using the statistical software IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 28), with the objective of identifying statistically significant differences based on three sociodemographic variables: gender, type of educational institution, and current or prior attendance at music conservatories or schools.

Prior to conducting inferential analyses, assumptions of normality and homoscedasticity were assessed to determine the appropriateness of the statistical procedures to be employed. To this end, the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test was applied to the scores obtained across the five dimensions of the Intercultural Inclusion for Students in Musical Contexts (EIICM) scale. The results indicated statistically significant values across all dimensions (p < 0.001), leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis of normality. Consequently, it was established that most variables did not follow a normal distribution.

As a result, non-parametric tests were selected for analyzing the variables of gender, type of educational institution, and attendance at conservatories or music schools. Specifically, the Mann–Whitney U test was used to assess differences in perception based on gender and music conservatory attendance, as these involved comparisons between two independent groups. Additionally, the Kruskal–Wallis H test was employed to identify statistically significant differences among more than two groups based on the type of educational institution (Primary Education, Compulsory Secondary Education, and Elementary, Professional, and Higher Conservatories). Finally, Spearman’s rho correlation coefficient was calculated to explore the associations between the EIICM dimensions and the type of institution.

The combined use of descriptive, correlational, and comparative analyses ensured the robustness of the study, aligning with the ordinal nature of the data obtained through Likert-type scales and yielding valid and reliable results for interpreting students’ perceptions of inclusion and interculturality in music education.

4. Results

The one-sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov test is used to determine whether a variable follows a normal distribution (Baumgartner & Kolassa, 2021). In this case, the test was applied to the five dimensions of the instrument (

Table 1. One-Sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov Test.

			F_1	F_2	F_3	F_4	F_5
N			645	645	645	631	645
Normal parameters a,b	Mean		27.54	25.2171	20.6605	11.0745	12.6062
	Standard Deviation		6.045	4.02045	4.80725	3.46948	2.77745
Most Extreme Differences	Absolute		0.119	0.171	0.200	0.257	0.238
	Positive		0.109	0.156	0.183	0.152	0.194
	Negative		−0.119	−0.171	−0.200	−0.257	−0.238
Test Statistic			0.119	0.171	0.200	0.257	0.238
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) c			<0.001	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001
Monte Carlo Sig. (2-tailed) d	Sig.		0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
	99% Confidence Interval	Lower Bound	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
		Upper Bound	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000

Note. ^a Test distribution is normal; ^b Calculated from data; ^c Lilliefors significance correction; ^d Lilliefors method based on 10,000 Monte Carlo samples with starting seed 2,000,000.

).

The analysis of the EIICM questionnaire showed that the distribution of responses in all five dimensions did not follow the expected “normal” pattern. In statistical terms, the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test produced highly significant results (p < 0.001), meaning that the responses were not evenly spread out but instead displayed the kinds of biases often found in self-reported data based on Likert-type scales (Table 1).

Because of this, it would not be appropriate to rely on statistical techniques that assume a normal distribution of the data. Instead, the study used non-parametric methods, such as the Mann–Whitney U test, which are well suited for comparing groups under these conditions. This approach ensures that the results remain reliable when analyzing differences, for example, between men and women (

Table 2. Rank-Based Analysis of the Cultural Influence of Music Education by Gender.

Factors	Gender	N	Mean Rank	Sum of Ranks
F_1	Male	281	308.03	86,557.50
	Female	356	327.66	116,645.50
	Total	637
F_2	Male	281	300.49	84,438.50
	Female	356	333.61	118,764.50
	Total	637
F_3	Male	281	310.20	87,165.00
	Female	356	325.95	116,038.00
	Total	637
F_4	Male	274	319.55	87,556.00
	Female	349	306.07	106,820.00
	Total	623
F_5	Male	281	291.80	81,995.00
	Female	356	340.47	121,208.00
	Total	637

Note. F₁: Intercultural inclusion in the music classroom; F₂: Similarity of musical abilities; F₃: Intercultural relationships; F₄: Resolution of intercultural conflicts; F₅: Cultural learning in intercultural contexts.

).

This analysis compares the responses obtained from male and female participants for each of the five dimensions of the EIICM scale using the Mann–Whitney U test, a non-parametric test employed to compare two independent groups (Arnaiz-Castro et al., 2024).

Looking at the average ranks (Table 2), female students scored higher than male students in dimensions F₂ and F₅, which points to a more positive or frequent perception of these aspects. The Mann–Whitney U test confirmed that the gender differences in these two areas were statistically significant (

Table 3. Significant Gender Differences Identified by the Mann–Whitney U Test.

Gender Variable	F_1	F_2	F_3	F_4	F_5
Mann–Whitney U	46,936.500	44,817.500	47,544.000	45,745.000	42,374.000
Wilcoxon W	86,557.500	84,438.500	87,165.000	106,820.000	81,995.000
Z	−1.347	−2.293	−1.107	−0.964	−3.473
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)	0.18	0.02	0.27	0.34	<0.00

Note. F₁: Intercultural inclusion in the music classroom; F₂: Similarity of musical abilities; F₃: Intercultural relationships; F₄: Resolution of intercultural conflicts; F₅: Cultural learning in intercultural contexts.

). Specifically, in dimension F₂ (Similarity of Musical Abilities), female students expressed a stronger belief that everyone has the same ability to learn music (p = 0.02). Likewise, in dimension F₅ (Cultural Learning in Intercultural Contexts), their responses reflected a notably greater sense of learning from cultural diversity through music (p < 0.001).

These findings may be linked to broader social or educational influences shaping how male and female students perceive inclusion and cultural openness, echoing insights from previous studies on the role of music in fostering intercultural integration (Gross, 2025; Quirós et al., 2025). By contrast, no significant gender differences were observed in the remaining dimensions—intercultural inclusion (F₁), intercultural relationships (F₃), and conflict resolution (F₄)—suggesting that students, regardless of gender, hold fairly similar views in these areas (

Table 4. Comparative Gender Analysis Across the Five Dimensions of the Intercultural Inclusion Scale for Students in Musical Contexts (EIICM).

Factor	Sig. (p-Value)	Interpretation
F_1	0.18	There are no significant differences between genders
F_2	0.02	The female gender perceives greater similarity in musical abilities
F_3	0.27	There are no significant differences
F_4	0.34	There are no significant differences
F_5	0.00	The female gender reports greater cultural learning

Note. F₁: Intercultural inclusion in the music classroom; F₂: Similarity of musical abilities; F₃: Intercultural relationships; F₄: Resolution of intercultural conflicts; F₅: Cultural learning in intercultural contexts.

).

Non-parametric analyses using the Kruskal–Wallis test revealed clear differences in how students perceive intercultural inclusion depending on the type of educational institution (Fahruddin & Saefudin, 2025).

In the first dimension (Intercultural Inclusion in the Music Classroom), students from Professional Conservatories and from Primary and Early Childhood Education Schools reported more favorable views compared to those from Secondary Education Institutes, where perceptions were notably lower (

Table 5. Comparison of Average Ranks Across the Five EIICM Dimensions by Type of Educational Institution.

	Educational Institution	N	Average Rank
F_1	Compulsory Secondary Education Institute	73	204.88
	Primary and Early Childhood Education School	216	338.64
	Higher Conservatory of Music	136	304.03
	Professional Conservatory of Music	158	371.09
	Elementary Conservatory of Music	62	326.65
	Total	645
F_2	Compulsory Secondary Education Institute	73	281.05
	Primary and Early Childhood Education School	216	298.31
	Higher Conservatory of Music	136	337.98
	Professional Conservatory of Music	158	353.58
	Elementary Conservatory of Music	62	347.63
	Total	645
F_3	Compulsory Secondary Education Institute	73	235.12
	Primary and Early Childhood Education School	216	363.94
	Higher Conservatory of Music	136	346.04
	Professional Conservatory of Music	158	320.78
	Elementary Conservatory of Music	62	238.95
	Total	645
F_4	Compulsory Secondary Education Institute	70	357.63
	Primary and Early Childhood Education School	212	331.66
	Higher Conservatory of Music	132	339.11
	Professional Conservatory of Music	156	278.69
	Elementary Conservatory of Music	61	259.20
	Total	631
F_5	Compulsory Secondary Education Institute	73	217.53
	Primary and Early Childhood Education School	216	333.69
	Higher Conservatory of Music	136	346.46
	Professional Conservatory of Music	158	326.97
	Elementary Conservatory of Music	62	348.37
	Total	645

).

In the second dimension (Similarity of Musical Abilities), results showed that students in Professional and Elementary Conservatories were more likely to believe that all individuals share the same capacity to learn music.

The third dimension (Intercultural Relationships) also revealed strong contrasts: Primary and Early Childhood Education Schools, along with Higher Conservatories, displayed the most positive attitudes toward building relationships between students from different cultures, while Secondary Education Institutes and Elementary Conservatories scored considerably lower.

In the fourth dimension (Resolution of Intercultural Conflicts), Secondary Education Institutes and Higher Conservatories stood out with more favorable views on mediation and conflict resolution, compared to the more modest results from Professional and Elementary Conservatories.

Finally, in the fifth dimension (Cultural Learning), students from Elementary and Higher Conservatories reported richer experiences of cultural learning through music, whereas Secondary Education Institutes once again recorded the least positive perceptions (

Table 6. Comparison of Differences Between Types of Educational Institutions Using the Kruskal–Wallis Test.

	F_1	F_2	F_3	F_4	F_5
Kruskal–Wallis H	43.530	14.177	44.069	21.417	30.157
gl	4	4	4	4	4
Asymp. Sig.	<0.001	0.007	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001

).

Taken together, these results highlight that intercultural inclusion is perceived more positively in conservatories and in primary-level education than in secondary schools. This suggests that both specialized musical training environments and early educational settings provide more fertile ground for fostering inclusion and cultural learning from an intercultural perspective. To reinforce the validity of these findings, further analyses were conducted using Spearman’s rho to explore the relationships between the five dimensions of the scale and the type of educational institution (

Table 7. Descriptive Measures of the Five EIICM Dimensions in the Total Sample.

	Mean	Standard Deviation	N
Educational Institution	2.88	1.185	645
F_1	27.54	6.045	645
F_2	25.2171	4.02045	645
F_3	20.6605	4.80725	645
F_4	11.0745	3.46948	631
F_5	12.6062	2.77745	645

).

First, the descriptive analyses showed differentiated means for each of the five dimensions of the Intercultural Inclusion Scale for Students in Musical Contexts (EIICM) (Table 7). The highest score corresponded to the dimension Intercultural Inclusion in the Music Classroom (F₁) with a mean of 27.54 (SD = 6.05), followed by Similarity of Musical Abilities (F₂; M = 25.22; SD = 4.02) and Intercultural Relationships (F₃; M = 20.66; SD = 4.81). Meanwhile, the dimensions Resolution of Intercultural Conflicts (F₄; M = 11.07; SD = 3.46) and Cultural Learning (F₅; M = 12.61; SD = 2.77) recorded lower values, suggesting that these areas are perceived by students with less intensity compared to the former.

The correlation analysis using Spearman’s rho showed that the five dimensions of the EIICM are closely interconnected. Overall, most dimensions were positively and moderately related, meaning that students who reported stronger perceptions in one area also tended to express more positive views in others (

Table 8. Non-parametric Associations (Spearman’s rho) Between the Five Dimensions of Intercultural Inclusion and the Educational Institution.

Spearman’s Rho		Educational Institution	F_1	F_2	F_3	F_4	F_5
Educational Institution	Correlation Coefficient	1.000	0.156 **	0.142 **	−0.043	−0.164 **	0.124 **
	Sig. (2-tailed)		<0.001	<0.001	0.281	<0.001	0.002
	N	645	645	645	645	631	645
F_1	Correlation Coefficient	0.156 **	1.000	0.374 **	0.339 **	0.168 **	0.422 **
	Sig. (2-tailed)	<0.001	.	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001
	N	645	645	645	645	631	645
F_2	Correlation Coefficient	0.142 **	0.374 **	1.000	0.241 **	0.328 **	0.324 **
	Sig. (2-tailed)	<0.001	<0.001	.	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001
	N	645	645	645	645	631	645
F_3	Correlation Coefficient	−0.043	0.339 **	0.241 **	1.000	0.249 **	0.350 **
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.281	<0.001	<0.001	.	<0.001	<0.001
	N	645	645	645	645	631	645
F_4	Correlation Coefficient	−0.164 **	0.168 **	0.328 **	0.249 **	1.000	0.234 **
	Sig. (2-tailed)	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001	.	<0.001
	N	631	631	631	631	631	631
F_5	Correlation Coefficient	0.124 **	0.422 **	0.324 **	0.350 **	0.234 **	1.000
	Sig. (2-tailed)	0.002	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001	.
	N	645	645	645	645	631	645

Note. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

).

For example, strong links were found between Intercultural Inclusion in the Music Classroom (F₁) and Cultural Learning (F₅), as well as between F₁ and Similarity of Musical Abilities (F₂). This suggests that when students feel included in the music classroom, they are also more likely to value both the idea that everyone can learn music and the opportunities to learn from cultural diversity. Similarly, Intercultural Relationships (F₃) was positively associated with both F₂ and F₅, indicating that positive interactions among students from different cultures go hand in hand with a belief in equal musical abilities and openness to intercultural learning.

Resolution of Intercultural Conflicts (F₄) also showed significant positive links with all other dimensions, especially with F₂ and F₃. This finding highlight that the ability to manage conflicts constructively is related to stronger perceptions of equality in musical skills and healthier intercultural relationships.

Although weaker in strength, the type of educational institution also correlated with several dimensions. It was positively related to F₁, F₂, and F₅, suggesting that institutional context can support perceptions of inclusion and cultural learning. However, a small negative correlation was observed with F₄, implying that in some settings students perceived fewer opportunities for conflict resolution (Table 8).

Taken together, these findings emphasize that the dimensions of intercultural inclusion reinforce one another: positive perceptions in one domain tend to strengthen attitudes in others. At the same time, the type of educational institution plays a moderating role, albeit to a limited extent. To explore this influence further, an additional Mann–Whitney test compared students who attended music conservatories with those who did not. The results revealed significant differences in three out of the five EIICM dimensions (

Table 9. Rank Distribution of the Five EIICM Dimensions by Attendance at Conservatories.

	Conservatory Attendance	N	Average Rank	Sum of Ranks
F_1	Yes	72	329.20	23,702.50
	No	573	322.22	184,632.50
	Total	645
F_2	Yes	72	378.33	27,240.00
	No	573	316.05	181,095.00
	Total	645
F_3	Yes	72	278.43	20,047.00
	No	573	328.60	188,288.00
	Total	645
F_4	Yes	71	265.48	18,849.00
	No	560	322.41	180,547.00
	Total	631
F_5	Yes	72	311.30	22,413.50
	No	573	324.47	185,921.50
	Total	645

).

In the dimension Similarity of Musical Abilities (F₂), students who attended conservatories scored higher than those who did not, indicating that they were more likely to believe that everyone has an equal capacity to learn music. This difference was statistically significant, reinforcing the idea that conservatory settings strengthen students’ perceptions of equity in musical abilities (

Table 10. Comparison of Differences Using the Mann–Whitney Test Based on Conservatory Attendance.

	F_1	F_2	F_3	F_4	F_5
Mann–Whitney U	20,181.500	16,644.000	17,419.000	16,293.000	19,785.500
Wilcoxon W	184,632.500	181,095.000	20,047.000	18,849.000	22,413.500
Z	−0.302	−2.719	−2.222	−2.579	−0.592
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)	0.76	0.00	0.02	0.01	0.55

).

By contrast, in Intercultural Relationships (F₃), the trend was reversed: students in non-conservatory institutions reported more positive views of relationships with peers from different cultural backgrounds. Similarly, in Resolution of Intercultural Conflicts (F₄), non-conservatory students also expressed stronger confidence in the ability to manage and resolve conflicts. These findings suggest that while conservatories promote beliefs about equal musical abilities, other educational settings may provide richer experiences for fostering intercultural interactions and conflict resolution.

No significant differences were observed between groups in Intercultural Inclusion in the Music Classroom (F₁) or Cultural Learning (F₅), which indicates that perceptions in these two areas remain relatively similar regardless of conservatory attendance.

Taken together, these results suggest that conservatories have a selective influence: they enhance perceptions of equality in musical learning but do not necessarily translate into stronger intercultural relationships or conflict resolution skills. This pattern complements the broader analyses based on institution type, offering a more nuanced understanding of how conservatories contribute to inclusive and culturally diverse environments.

To extend this analysis, the study also examined the role of music school attendance. Using the Mann–Whitney U test, participants were grouped according to whether they attended such schools. The results (

Table 11. Rank Distribution of the Five EIICM Dimensions by Attendance at Music Schools.

	Music School Attendance	N	Average Rank	Sum of Ranks
F_1	Yes	90	313.21	28,189.00
	No	555	324.59	180,146.00
	Total	645
F_2	Yes	90	359.74	32,376.50
	No	555	317.04	175,958.50
	Total	645
F_3	Yes	90	312.32	28,109.00
	No	555	324.73	180,226.00
	Total	645
F_4	Yes	87	287.48	25,011.00
	No	544	320.56	174,385.00
	Total	631
F_5	Yes	90	327.51	29,475.50
	No	555	322.27	178,859.50
	Total	645

and

Table 12. Nonparametric Analysis (Mann–Whitney U) of the EIICM Based on Music School Attendance.

	F_1	F_2	F_3	F_4	F_5
Mann–Whitney U	24,094.000	21,668.500	24,014.000	21,183.000	24,569.500
Wilcoxon U	28,189.000	175,958.500	28,109.000	25,011.000	178,859.500
Z	−0.542	−2.051	−0.605	−1.635	−0.259
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)	0.588	0.040	0.545	0.102	0.796

) showed no significant differences across most dimensions of the EIICM. However, attendance at music schools was associated with a more favorable perception in the dimension Similarity of Musical Abilities (F₂), again underscoring that specialized musical training environments reinforce students’ belief in the equitable distribution of musical potential.

The analysis revealed meaningful differences only in the dimension Similarity of Musical Abilities (F₂) (p = 0.040). Students who had attended music schools tended to view musical abilities as more equally distributed among peers, scoring notably higher than those without this experience. This finding suggests that time spent in music schools strengthens students’ belief that everyone has the potential to learn music on an equal footing.

In contrast, no significant differences emerged in the other four dimensions: Intercultural Inclusion in the Music Classroom (F₁), Intercultural Relationships (F₃), Resolution of Intercultural Conflicts (F₄), and Cultural Learning (F₅). This indicates that music school attendance does not substantially shape perceptions in these areas.

Overall, these results point to a selective influence: while attending music schools reinforces the idea of equality in musical abilities, it does not appear to alter students’ broader views on inclusion, intercultural relationships, conflict resolution, or cultural learning.

5. Discussion

The results obtained in this research enable a robust dialogue with the previously presented theoretical frameworks, demonstrating how educational inclusion, gender perspective, and the type of educational context significantly shape students’ perceptions of cultural diversity in music education.

The value of educational inclusion as both a pedagogical and social principle is reaffirmed, as noted by Moriña (2020) and Kefallinou et al. (2020). Students educated in environments that are sensitive to diversity—such as Professional Conservatories and Primary Education Schools—show more positive perceptions regarding the equality of musical abilities and intercultural relationships. These findings reinforce the idea that an inclusive pedagogical approach not only guarantees equitable access to education but also fosters active and meaningful student participation. Furthermore, it is worth underscoring that such pedagogical strategies promote learning environments that are more just and respectful of cultural plurality (Florian & Beaton, 2018; UNESCO, 2006). This becomes particularly relevant in multicultural regions such as Andalusia, Ceuta, and Melilla, where daily contact with cultural diversity requires tailored educational frameworks.

Music, as a collaborative artistic space, emerges as a powerful pedagogical resource for fostering inclusion, encouraging mutual recognition and cooperation among students from diverse cultural backgrounds. In this regard, statistical data confirm a significant association between inclusive music education experiences and positive perceptions of equity. Presenting these findings in a more narrative fashion helps clarify that students in diversity-sensitive contexts not only exhibit more favorable attitudes but also develop stronger intercultural competencies.

The gender-related findings further emphasize the need to integrate a critical perspective into intercultural music education. Consistent with previous research (Miettinen et al., 2018), female students show significantly more favorable attitudes toward the equality of musical abilities and a stronger connection with intercultural learning through music. These differences appear to be partly influenced by social and educational factors that have fostered values such as empathy, cooperation, and respect for diversity among girls, cultivated within musical settings. Given that music requires emotional sensitivity and collaborative work, it becomes a privileged socialization space that enhances these attitudes. However, to achieve a deeper understanding, it is necessary to incorporate gender not only as a sociodemographic variable but also as an analytical lens capable of questioning the structures that generate inequality. This perspective moves beyond simply highlighting differences between male and female students, allowing for critical reflection on how stereotypes, role expectations, and cultural norms shape perceptions (Borgström Källén & Ferm Almqvist, 2024). A broader discussion grounded in intersectionality would also enable the integration of additional variables—such as ethnic background or social class—that condition students’ experiences, thus constituting a key line for future research.

With regard to educational contexts, the findings confirm that Elementary and Higher Conservatories, as well as Primary Education Schools, represent particularly favorable environments for the development of inclusive attitudes. In line with Pang (2024) and Crawford (2020), the pedagogical structure of these institutions—characterized by affective closeness, a cooperative orientation, and curricular transversality—fosters the acquisition of intercultural competencies. Conversely, Secondary Education Institutes display lower perceptions in this regard, which may be attributable to factors such as curricular rigidity, large class sizes, or limited teacher training in cultural diversity (Sorkos & Hajisoteriou, 2020; Cummins, 2015). This finding highlights the urgent need for stronger teacher training policies and institutional support programs that can help overcome these challenges.

Regarding the study’s limitations, it should be noted that the research is confined to a regional context (Andalusia, Ceuta, and Melilla), which may limit the generalizability of the findings. Likewise, reliance on self-reported measures introduces potential biases related to social desirability, and although the instrument employed was validated, it may still reflect cultural nuances that influence item interpretation. These limitations do not undermine the value of the findings but suggest caution when extrapolating them, while also providing a starting point for comparative studies in broader national and international contexts.

6. Conclusions

This study demonstrates that students’ perceptions of intercultural inclusion in music education are strongly influenced by gender and institutional context. Female students reported more positive attitudes toward equality in musical abilities and cultural learning, while Professional and Higher Conservatories, along with Primary Education Schools, were identified as particularly favorable environments for fostering inclusive and intercultural attitudes. By contrast, Secondary Education Institutes appeared less favorable, with factors such as curricular rigidity, larger class sizes, and limited teacher training in intercultural competencies influencing perceptions negatively.

Attendance at conservatories and music schools was also shown to shape perceptions selectively: it reinforced beliefs in the equality of musical abilities but did not necessarily improve intercultural relationships or conflict resolution. These findings highlight the need to critically review pedagogical practices in specialized music education contexts to ensure they also foster intercultural competencies.

Overall, the results confirm that music, beyond its artistic dimension, functions as a strategic pedagogical tool for inclusion, recognition, and social cohesion—particularly in culturally diverse regions such as Andalusia, Ceuta, and Melilla. They also underscore the importance of integrating both gender and institutional type as key variables in the design of inclusive educational policies and teacher training programs.

Beyond the Spanish context, these findings have broader implications for international education. They stress the relevance of incorporating gender and intercultural perspectives into curriculum design and teacher training in increasingly diverse societies. Future research should prioritize cross-national comparative studies to identify shared trends and contextual differences, contributing to the development of more inclusive and culturally responsive global curricular frameworks.

In conclusion, the results of this study support previous scientific literature and highlight the importance of considering gender, type of educational institution, and pedagogical approach as key variables in designing educational policies and implementing training programs aimed at promoting genuine intercultural inclusion in music education. Beyond the Spanish context, these findings provide valuable insights for international education policies, showing that both inclusion and a gender perspective must be central to teacher training and curriculum design in increasingly diverse societies. Future research should prioritize cross-national comparative studies that identify common patterns and contextual differences, thereby contributing to the development of global curricular frameworks that are more inclusive and culturally responsive.

Finally, this study provides empirical evidence that reinforces the role of music as a vehicle for inclusive and intercultural education. It highlights its potential to promote democratic values, respect, and equity, while offering theoretical and methodological foundations to support educational policy and teacher training initiatives. Importantly, it contributes to the debate on moving beyond Eurocentric approaches in music education and advancing toward curricula that recognize and value cultural plurality, thereby generating knowledge that can transform educational practice in diverse contexts.

7. Limitations and Future Directions

Although the findings of this research provide valuable evidence regarding the relationship between inclusion, gender, and educational context in music education, it is important to acknowledge certain limitations that shape its scope. First, the study is focused on three specific territories—Andalusia, Ceuta, and Melilla—which enriches the analysis through their internal cultural diversity, but at the same time restricts the possibility of generalizing the results to other contexts. In addition, the use of self-reported questionnaires represents a strength in terms of the breadth of data collected, yet it also entails risks of bias stemming from subjective interpretation and the social desirability of responses. Another limitation relates to the predominantly quantitative nature of the analysis: a mixed-methods approach would have allowed for a more nuanced interpretation by incorporating qualitative testimonies of how students experience inclusion in their educational trajectories.

Looking ahead, the study opens several avenues for future research that warrant further exploration. One of these is the expansion of the sample to an international scale in order to conduct cross-cultural comparisons, thereby identifying both commonalities and divergences in how cultural diversity in music education is perceived. It also seems necessary to integrate new variables that can enrich the analysis, particularly those linked to cultural dimensions—such as ethnic background, home languages, or musical traditions of belonging—that may offer additional insights into the dynamics of inclusion and exclusion within classrooms.

With respect to gender, the results highlight the importance of deepening its analysis not only as a sociodemographic category but also as an interpretative framework that enables the questioning of stereotypes and role expectations embedded in educational practice. In this regard, advancing toward decolonial perspectives would also be highly pertinent, as they can help to overcome excessively Eurocentric approaches, both in the design of research instruments and in the pedagogical proposals that emerge from them. Finally, on a practical level, the findings underscore the importance of strengthening teacher training and designing educational policies that go beyond simply acknowledging cultural diversity, and instead actively transform it into a pedagogical resource for building more inclusive environments. By positioning music as a space of intercultural encounter, such initiatives could not only enrich teaching practice but also provide valuable guidance for the development of curricula that are more responsive to cultural plurality in a global context.