Validating an Expanded Model of Teacher Satisfaction: Introducing Occupational Prestige in the Greek Preschool Context

Abstract

Job satisfaction is widely acknowledged as a complex, multidimensional construct that significantly influences both employee well-being and organizational performance. Within the field of education, empirical research specifically focusing on preschool teachers’ job satisfaction remains scarce. Progress in this area is related to the availability of psychometrically robust measurement instruments. This study examined job satisfaction among Greek preschool teachers using a revised version of the Teachers’ Satisfaction Inventory (TSI), integrating theoretical frameworks emphasizing job satisfaction’s multidimensional nature and its critical role in organizational effectiveness. The present study aimed to (1) validate the TSI’s psychometric properties for preschool teachers and (2) assess satisfaction levels by incorporating two new dimensions: salary and perceived prestige. An extended version of the 30-item TSI, measuring seven dimensions, was administered to 224 Greek preschool teachers. Psychometric properties were assessed using confirmatory factor analysis (χ² = 743.33, df = 384, CFI = 0.992, RMSEA = 0.067, SRMR = 0.078), reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.77 to 0.94) and convergent analyses (AVE = 0.661 to 0.854). Findings indicated that the revised TSI is a valid and reliable instrument with a strong seven-factor structure (factors’ correlation = 0.143 to 0.787). Results revealed high satisfaction with colleagues and students, but significant dissatisfaction with salary and prestige. The findings underscore the need for policymakers to address financial compensation and societal recognition to enhance retention and well-being in preschool education. This study contributes a validated tool for assessing preschool teachers’ job satisfaction while highlighting context-specific challenges in Greece.

1. Introduction

Although job satisfaction has been extensively researched, no commonly accepted definition of the concept has been identified in the literature, highlighting its complexity and multidimensional nature (Eliophotou-Menon & Athanasoula-Reppa, 2011; Judge & Klinger, 2008; Spector, 1997). The variety of definitions is justified by the different theoretical and methodological frameworks on which they are based. Thus, it has been argued that the concept of job satisfaction is linked to the extent to which individuals perceive that their work-related needs are fulfilled (Edwards, 1991; Evans, 1997). On the other hand, some researchers attribute emotional content to the concept, considering that job satisfaction is an emotional response to individual value judgments about the rewards of the work environment (Locke, 1969; Weiss, 2002).

Despite the discrepancy in the conceptual definition of the term, it is generally accepted that job satisfaction is one of the most important factors of organizational effectiveness, as increased or decreased employee satisfaction can have a strong impact on the functioning and effectiveness of an organization. Specifically, high satisfaction has been found to be positively related to productive work behavior (Judge et al., 2017; Lan et al., 2022), job performance (Katebi et al., 2022) and organizational commitment (Bashir & Gani, 2020).

Conversely, low satisfaction is associated with high burnout rates (Song et al., 2020), bringing about a variety of consequences such as absenteeism and higher rates of staff mobility and turnover. This is because feeling dissatisfied reduces employees’ enthusiasm for performing tasks, increasing their stress levels, which enhances their intention to leave the job (Ewen et al., 2021; Xue et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2021).

1.1. Teachers’ Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction has been extensively studied across various professions, but the field of education is particularly noteworthy due to its unique characteristics. Teaching is widely regarded as a highly demanding and stressful profession, requiring exceptional skills. Teachers face different daily challenges in their work environment, experiencing intense emotional interactions and greater psychological stress than many other professionals (De Heus & Diekstra, 1999; Ferguson et al., 2012; Nwoko et al., 2023). As a result, teachers often report higher stress levels and lower job satisfaction. Empirical evidence indicates that teachers’ job dissatisfaction can negatively affect their work engagement and overall performance (Cameron & Lovett, 2015; Carroll et al., 2022), which has a negative impact on student achievement (Dicke et al., 2020). Furthermore, low job satisfaction is positively correlated with low teacher engagement as teachers fail to create a positive learning environment that provides students with appropriate opportunities for learning and success (Dreer, 2024). As a result, the teacher feels alienated from their job, gradually leading to emotional exhaustion and burnout, which increases the intention to leave the profession (Madigan & Kim, 2021; Merida-Lopez et al., 2022; Williams et al., 2024).

Regarding preschool teachers, research into this topic remains limited at the international level (Nwoko et al., 2023; Taleb, 2013) and is even scarcer in Greece. However, examining the professional satisfaction of preschool teachers is essential for several reasons. First and foremost, preschool teachers work with children in a developmental stage characterized by immaturity and limited self-regulation (Zhao & Jeon, 2023), making behavior management a critical factor in their overall effectiveness. Moreover, the high levels of physical activity among young children require constant vigilance to ensure their safety (Tsigilis et al., 2006). In addition, the frequent involvement of parents and the demands of supervisors increase the difficulty of teachers’ work, often undermining their mental well-being. Therefore, preschool teachers may be more susceptible to stress and emotional exhaustion compared with their counterparts at other educational levels, leading to increased feelings of dissatisfaction and a desire to leave the profession (Buettner et al., 2016; Cheng et al., 2020; Chou et al., 2016; You & Zhang, 2021). Jeon and Wells (2018) found that lower satisfaction with the work environment among preschool teachers was linked to higher turnover rates. Similarly, Lambert et al. (2019) reported that symptoms of occupational stress reduced the degree of professional commitment and intention to leave the profession. Furthermore, Tsigilis et al. (2006) identified job satisfaction as a significant predictor of burnout among preschool teachers. Given the vital role preschool teachers play in fostering children’s holistic development and ensuring their smooth transition into successful adulthood (Denham et al., 2012), it is evident that a satisfied preschool teacher is better equipped to meet the demands of the profession.

1.2. Sources of Teacher Job Satisfaction

The factors influencing teachers’ job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are widely discussed and debated within the international scientific community. A review of the relevant literature highlights key aspects to teacher satisfaction, including leadership (Gkolia et al., 2014), relationships with colleagues (Lee & Quek, 2018) and students (Admiraal et al., 2019), salary, working conditions (Boyd, 2013), as well as opportunities for promotion and occupational prestige (Anghelache, 2014; Dinham & Scott, 1998; Symeonidis, 2015). In particular, a study conducted in Spain among teachers at all educational levels found that principal support was a strong predictor of job satisfaction (Merida-Lopez et al., 2022). Similarly, Pepe et al. (2017), in a study of primary schools across six countries, showed that relationships with students, colleagues, and parents had a greater impact on job satisfaction than job duties and working conditions. In Cyprus, Zembylas and Papanastasiou (2006) found that primary and secondary school teachers derived the greatest satisfaction from working with children and making meaningful contributions to society. Conversely, they identified the centralized education system, limited professional autonomy, and restricted promotion opportunities as key sources of dissatisfaction.

The limited research into preschool education suggests that teachers derive primary satisfaction from the nature of their work but express dissatisfaction with financial compensation (Hall-Kenyon et al., 2014). In Taleb’s (2013) study conducted in Jordan, preschool teachers reported high satisfaction with their working conditions and relationships with both children and colleagues. However, they expressed dissatisfaction with financial rewards, the work’s prestige, and communication with parents. Quantitative and qualitative findings from Lee and Quek’s (2018) study in Singapore indicate that positive relationships with colleagues, support for students, and opportunities for personal development contribute significantly to teacher satisfaction. This suggests that working with preschool children, engaging in meaningful interactions with them, and fostering collegial relationships enhance teachers’ sense of enjoyment and fulfillment. On the contrary, low salaries and the perceived lack of occupational recognition exacerbate feelings of frustration among preschool teachers.

In the Greek educational and cultural context, the limited number of studies conducted have primarily focused on elementary and secondary education. Their findings highlighted the teacher-student relationship as a key factor in job satisfaction, while unsupportive relationships and conflicts with colleagues and/or supervisors were reported as sources of dissatisfaction (Gkolia et al., 2014). Koustelios (2001) reported that teachers were satisfied with the nature of their work and their relationship with the principal but dissatisfied with salaries and career prospects. Similarly, in a study of preschool teachers, Tsigilis et al. (2006) found high satisfaction with the job itself and the principal, yet dissatisfaction with pay. Finally, Tarasiadou and Platsidou (2009) maintained that preschool teachers were generally satisfied with the nature and conditions of work but dissatisfied with opportunities for advancement and financial compensation.

1.3. Measure of Teachers’ Job Satisfaction

A variety of research instruments have been developed to measure job satisfaction, reflecting both its multidimensional nature as well as the lack of consensus on its conceptual construction (Ho & Au, 2006; Pepe et al., 2017). A common characteristic of most tools is their multidimensional approach, assessing various aspects of work that contribute to overall satisfaction. However, they differ in the number and nature of the sources of satisfaction. One area of research utilizes measurement scales designed to assess teacher satisfaction, regardless of the specific occupation being targeted (e.g., Atmaca et al., 2020; Bhamani, 2012; Karslı & İskender, 2009; Koustelios, 2001).

Another line of research examines teacher satisfaction using scales specifically developed for the field of education (Dinham & Scott, 1998; Gkolia & Koustelios, 2014; Lester, 1987; Pepe et al., 2017; Taleb, 2013). With the exception of Ho and Au (2006), who adopt a unidimensional approach with five items, existing instruments assess teacher satisfaction across multiple dimensions, ranging from three (Pepe et al., 2017) to nine (Lester, 1987). Consequently, most instruments measuring job satisfaction do not differentiate between teachers and other professionals, potentially overlooking key factors unique to the teaching occupation.

In an attempt to develop a contemporary research tool for assessing teachers’ job satisfaction, Gkolia and Koustelios (2014) introduced the Teachers’ Satisfaction Inventory (TSI), which was tested on primary and secondary school teachers. The TSI comprises 20 items measuring five key dimensions of satisfaction: principal, colleagues, the job itself, students, and working conditions. Comprehensive statistical analyses confirmed the instrument’s strong psychometric properties, including content validity, construct validity, and reliability. However, a notable limitation of the TSI is the absence of a dimension assessing teachers’ satisfaction with financial compensation, a factor included in most general and education-specific job satisfaction measures. Incorporating this dimension could not only enhance the TSI’s comprehensiveness but also facilitate comparisons with findings from previous studies.

Another important dimension missing from the TSI, yet integral to the concept of job satisfaction, is the prestige of the teaching work. According to Hoyle (2001), the term “occupational prestige” refers to the public recognition of teachers’ work, as opposed to the concept of “professional status”, which pertains to the social standing of the profession and is linked to the professionalism of teaching. Other researchers argue that there is no conceptual distinction between the two terms, considering them synonymous (e.g., Symeonidis, 2015). In the present study, following Hoyle (2001), the term “prestige” is used to denote the social recognition of teachers’ occupation by society, the state, and parents. Several scholars have argued that teachers’ respect for their work and the social recognition they receive contribute significantly to their satisfaction and influence their decision to remain in the profession (Boyd, 2013; Dinham & Scott, 2000; Kraft & Lyon, 2024). Empirical evidence indicates a decline in teachers’ societal prestige, both in international and Greek contexts (Fuming & Jiliang, 2007; Hargreaves, 2009; Kamtsios & Lolis, 2016; Symeonidis, 2015). This raises an important question about the extent to which occupational prestige impacts teachers’ job satisfaction.

These findings highlight the lack of consensus on the number and nature of factors suitable for measuring teacher job satisfaction, underscoring the challenge of identifying the most influential dimensions (Williams et al., 2024). In addition, they emphasize the need for further research to explore various aspects of teacher satisfaction using a reliable and valid instrument.

Despite the extensive literature on teacher job satisfaction, empirical research focusing explicitly on Greek preschool teachers remains remarkably scarce. A review of relevant studies revealed only two investigations conducted within this context (Tarasiadou & Platsidou, 2009; Tsigilis et al., 2006), both of which are dated and employed generalized instruments not specifically designed for the educational setting. Moreover, their scope was limited—either examining sectoral differences (public vs. private) or demographic correlations—without addressing core dimensions of job satisfaction, such as salary and perceived occupational prestige. These methodological and conceptual limitations hinder the development of a nuanced understanding of preschool teachers’ professional experiences in Greece. Accordingly, there is a compelling need for updated empirical evidence utilizing a contextually appropriate and psychometrically robust instrument. The present study responds to this need by enriching and validating an existing instrument and examining preschool teachers’ satisfaction levels across both established and newly integrated dimensions.

This study had two main objectives: first, to assess the level of job satisfaction among preschool teachers in Greece using the recently developed Teacher Satisfaction Inventory (TSI); and second, to improve TSI content validity by incorporating two additional sources of satisfaction, namely salary and perceived prestige of their profession. To achieve these objectives, a survey-based validation approach was employed. The study addressed the following research questions:

• Does the TSI scale maintain its psychometric properties when applied to preschool teachers?
• Do the two newly added subscales represent distinct factors from the existing ones?
• What is the level of job satisfaction among Greek preschool teachers based on the enriched version of the TSI?

2. Method

2.1. Participants

A total of 224 preschool teachers participated in the study, with the vast majority being female (98.7%, n = 221).

Table 1. Sample’s Demographic Characteristics.

		n	%
Age	25–30	6	2.7%
	36–40	29	12.9%
	41–45	27	12.1%
	46–50	39	17.4%
	51–55	82	36.6%
	56–60	39	17.4%
	˃60	2	0.9%
Degree level	Bachelor studies	144	64.3%
	Master studies	70	31.3%
	Doctoral studies	10	4.4%
Teaching experience	0–5	12	5.4%
	6–10	12	5.4%
	11–20	81	36.2%
	>20 years	119	53%
Gender	Men	3	1.3%
	Women	221	98.7%
Total		224

depicts participants’ demographic characteristics.

2.2. Instrument

An extended version of the Teacher’s Satisfaction Inventory (TSI) scale (Gkolia & Koustelios, 2014) was employed to examine teachers’ job satisfaction levels. As mentioned above, the initial instrument comprises 20 items to measure five sources of satisfaction. Despite the sound psychometric properties of the TSI, the absence of key factors influencing job satisfaction (e.g., salary and prestige) highlighted the need for additional dimensions to ensure a more comprehensive assessment. Drawing on previous studies, an initial pool of 13 items was developed—six related to salary and seven to prestige. These items were subjected to face validity assessment by two academic experts in the field of preschool education. Subsequently, a pilot study was conducted with a sample of 32 preschool teachers to evaluate item clarity and internal consistency. Based on the results, the five highest-performing items from each dimension were retained for the final instrument. Items assessing salary as a determinant of job satisfaction included statements such as ‘My salary is satisfactory’ and ‘My salary meets my needs.’ Additionally, items designed to measure perceived prestige included statements such as ‘The parents of my students respect my work as a teacher’ and ‘When I say I am a teacher, I feel recognized by others.’

Thus, the scale used in the present study consists of 30 items measuring job satisfaction across seven (7) dimensions: (a) principal, (b) salary, (c) students, (d) prestige, (e) colleagues, (f) working conditions, and (g) the job itself. Responses were given on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

2.3. Procedure

The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the School of Philosophy and Education at Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. To facilitate the survey, an electronic version of the questionnaire was created using the open-source platform Lime Survey, which complies with security and privacy standards. Data collection began in September 2023 and was completed at the end of October 2023. Participants received an information sheet alongside the questionnaire, detailing the survey’s purpose, objectives, instructions, and estimated completion time. The voluntary nature of participation was emphasized, along with participants’ right to withdraw at any stage. Anonymity was ensured, and it was explicitly stated that all data would be used solely for research purposes. The sample was selected through convenience sampling, relying on the voluntary participation of teachers. A total of 1180 emails were sent to preschool teachers across Greece, and 224 responses were received, yielding a response rate of 19%. This rate aligns with typical findings in the literature on web-based surveys, which often report response rates ranging from 10% to 20% (Sauermann & Roach, 2013; Van Mol, 2017). According to Dillman (2011), such rates are considered acceptable for online surveys without personalized contact or incentives.

2.4. Data Analysis

Statistical analyses were conducted using the open-source software JASP ver. 0.19 (Jeffreys’s Amazing Statistics Program). Reliability and validity assessments were performed to evaluate the psychometric properties of the TSI. To examine the factorial structure of the TSI, confirmatory factor analysis was applied to determine whether a seven-factor correlated model would adequately measure job satisfaction. Given that the variables were ordinal, model parameters were estimated using the Weighted Least Squares Mean and Variance Adjusted (WLSMV) method, which is suitable for this type of data. Cronbach’s alpha (α) was used to assess instrument’s internal consistency. Subsequently, descriptive statistical analyses, including mean scores and standard deviations, were conducted to evaluate teachers’ perceptions of each TSI subscale. The convergent and discriminant validity of various dimensions of satisfaction within the instrument was evaluated using the average variance extracted (AVE) and the squared AVE, respectively (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). A common rule of thumb suggesting convergent validity is when AVE yields a value of 0.50 or higher, indicating that, on average, the construct explains at least half of the variance of its indicators. On the other hand, discriminant validity is supported if the square root of the AVE for each construct is greater than the correlations with any other construct.

3. Results

Application of confirmatory factor analysis procedures showed a satisfactory fit of the seven correlated factor model (M_7cf) to the data: χ² = 743.33, df = 384, CFI = 0.992, RMSEA = 0.067, SRMR = 0.078. Item loadings were statistically significant, ranging from 0.731 to 0.961 (

Table 2. Extended and Original TSI Item Loadings.

PR	STUD	COLL	WC	JiS	SAL	PRES
PR1	0.90 (0.86)
PR4	0.89 (0.81)
PR15	0.95 (0.89)
PR20	0.94 (0.85)
PR30	0.95 (0.87)
STUD3		0.78 (0.76)
STUD7		0.87 (0.73)
STUD24		0.86 (0.82)
COLL8		0.88 (0.75)
COLL16			0.91 (0.74)
COLL19			0.84 (0.84)
COLL22			0.96 (0.71)
COLL26			0.84 (0.78)
WC9			0.91 (0.82)
WC14			0.81 (0.90)
WC28			0.86 (0.74)
JiS11				0.84 (0.72)
JiS18				0.85 (0.72)
JiS23				0.79 (0.63)
JiS29				0.85 (0.74)
SAL2						0.73
SAL5						0.88
SAL10						0.81
SAL13						0.87
SAL25						0.81
PRES6							0.82
PRES12							0.78
PRES17							0.74
PRES21							0.90
PRES27							0.82

Note. PR = Principal, SAL = Salary, PRES = Prestige, STUD = Students, COLL = Colleagues, WC = Work Conditions, JiS = Job itself. Values in parentheses are the original TSI item loadings. Fit indices of the original TSI: χ²(160) = 262.49, CFI = 0.978, RMSEA = 0.039.

). In an attempt to provide additional confidence in the 7-correlated factor model, a unidimensional (M_uni) as well as a second-order model (M_2nd) were also postulated and tested. Results showed that the unidimensional model did not fit the data and hence should be rejected, χ² = 3398.26, df = 434, CFI = 0.747, RMSEA = 0.180, SRMR = 0.186. Although the second-order model showed a better fit in relation to the unidimensional model, χ² = 1241.62, df = 398, CFI = 0.927, RMSEA = 0.100, SRMR = 0.116, fit indices were substantially lower than the 7-correlated factor model. Moreover, comparison between the 7-correlated factor model and the second-order model showed that the former should be retained (Δχ² = 179.14, df = 14, p < 0.01) as the one that best represents teachers’ responses to the extended TSI.

Correlations among the latent factors were all positive and statistically significant, ranging from 0.181 to 0.787 (

Table 3. AVE and Correlation Coefficient among the TSI Subscales.

	PR	SAL	STUD	PRES	COLL	WC	JiS
PR	(0.854)
SAL	0.181	(0.675)
STUD	0.409	0.249	(0.704)
PRES	0.408	0.504	0.787	(0.661)
COLL	0.738	0.143	0.461	0.473	(0.789)
WC	0.417	0.380	0.478	0.528	0.459	(0.739)
JiS	0.445	0.209	0.781	0.770	0.592	0.401	(0.692)

Note: All correlation coefficients are statistically significant at the 0.05 level of significance, AVE values in parentheses, PR = Principal, SAL = Salary, PRES = Prestige, STUD = Students, COLL = Colleagues, WC = Work Conditions, JiS = Job itself.

). Moreover, the average variance extracted (AVE) for each factor was well above the proposed cut-off score of 0.50 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Specifically, the AVE values ranged from 0.661 (Prestige) to 0.854 (Principal). On the other hand, the squared AVE values ranged from 0.813 to 0.924, which were well above the highest observed correlation between two variables (0.787). The above findings clearly show the convergent and discriminant validity of the extended TSI.

Cronbach’s alpha (α) yielded acceptable (0.77) to high values (0.94), suggesting a satisfactory internal consistency level for TSI subscales (

Table 4. Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for TSI Subscales.

Subscales	N	Cronbach’s α	Means (SD)	Cohen’s d
Principal	5	0.94	4.00 (0.78)	1.27
Salary	5	0.86	2.59 (0.85)	−0.47
Students	3	0.77	4.19 (0.55)	2.17
Prestige	5	0.83	3.68 (0.66)	1.02
Colleagues	5	0.89	4.12 (0.63)	1.78
Working Conditions	3	0.85	3.54 (0.95)	0.57
Job itself	4	0.82	4.27 (0.59)	2.15

).

Additionally, a one-sample t-test was performed to examine whether the means of the TSI subscales significantly differ from the response scale’s mid-point (3). Results showed that all means were statistically significant (p < 0.001). However, to determine whether these differences were also meaningful, Cohen’s d was employed as a measure of effect size. Except for the Salary and Working Conditions subscales, which showed moderate effect sizes (−0.47 and 0.57, respectively), the remaining subscales exhibited high effect sizes (from 1.02 to 2.17) (Table 4).

As shown in Table 4, teachers reported high levels of satisfaction with the nature of their work, as well as their relationships with students, colleagues, and the principal. However, they were less satisfied with the occupational prestige and their working conditions, and expressed dissatisfaction with their salary.

4. Discussion

The present study aimed to investigate the levels of professional satisfaction among preschool teachers in Greece, a topic with limited research both nationally and internationally. Toward this end, we sought to validate an expanded version of the Teacher Satisfaction Inventory (TSI) scale. Originally designed for the educational context and comprising five dimensions, the TSI was extended to include two important aspects of job satisfaction. Findings indicated that the expanded TSI showed strong psychometric properties when applied to preschool teachers. In addition, participants reported mixed levels of satisfaction with their job.

In particular, confirmatory factor analysis revealed that job satisfaction is best represented by a model comprising seven correlated latent factors. Comparisons with two alternative models (M_uni & M_2nd) further supported the factorial validity of the proposed model (M_7cf). Additionally, the subscales of the extended TSI demonstrated satisfactory levels of internal consistency. Analyses of convergent and discriminant validity indicated that the newly introduced subscales, Salary and Prestige, are distinct from the five pre-existing subscales. Taken together, the findings of this study suggest that the extended TSI is a valid and reliable instrument for assessing seven dimensions of job satisfaction among preschool teachers.

Existing research highlights that salary is a critical aspect within the conceptual framework of job satisfaction, and its measurement should be incorporated into studies in the field of education. This necessity is further emphasized by the fact that dissatisfaction with salary is associated with feelings of insecurity and stress, which can negatively affect work efficiency and the overall attractiveness of the teaching profession (Granger et al., 2022; Kraft & Lyon, 2024). Therefore, introducing a salary subscale to the original Teacher Satisfaction Inventory (TSI) not only enhances the instrument’s content validity but also facilitates comparisons with prior studies that have examined this dimension of satisfaction. Since the focus of this study was on preschool teachers, it remains to be determined whether this subscale functions as intended for other educational levels (e.g., primary, secondary) or teachers in different specialties (e.g., special education).

Furthermore, the findings of the present study justified our decision to include a subscale measuring job prestige. Specifically, this subscale was found to form a separate and well distinct dimension of the TSI, with strong internal consistency, and item loadings above 0.70. It is noteworthy, however, that measurement scales in the field of education often neglect to study prestige as a factor related to teacher satisfaction. To the best of our knowledge, only Lester’s (1987) Teacher Job Satisfaction Questionnaire had incorporated prestige as a distinct source of satisfaction. However, the conceptualization of prestige differs from that of the present study, as it is limited to recognition from a school’s direct stakeholders (administrators, colleagues, pupils, and parents), without considering the broader societal recognition of the occupation.

Contemporary empirical evidence suggests that the prestige of the teaching occupation has declined dramatically over the past decade (e.g., Kraft & Lyon, 2024). Exploring teachers’ perceptions of prestige may yield valuable insights into job satisfaction and, consequently, the quality of education delivered. According to Burns and Darling-Hammond (2014), countries where teaching is highly valued tend to have higher proportions of students achieving high scores on PISA tests. It appears that when teachers perceive that their work is valued by society, they are more likely to feel committed to their job and invest additional time and energy in improving their teaching. Therefore, inclusion of a subscale for occupational prestige in TSI not only holds scientific merit but also allows for the assessment of this crucial aspect of teachers’ satisfaction with their job.

In conclusion, this study introduced salary and prestige as distinct measures of preschool teachers’ job satisfaction. Considering that salary level constitutes a key determinant of occupational prestige (Burns & Darling-Hammond, 2014; Hoyle, 2001), teachers’ perceptions regarding their remuneration and the social prestige of their work may offer critical insights into the broader socio-economic characteristics of the teaching occupation. Furthermore, prestige and salary, as extrinsic sources of satisfaction, are predominantly linked to aspects that do not directly concern the core task of teaching. These factors are largely outside the control of individual teachers, as they stem from broader societal conditions and state governance structures (Dinham & Scott, 2000). However, these factors can cause significant stress to teachers and potentially impact their effectiveness, making it beneficial to consider them when assessing job satisfaction. As the original TSI primarily focused on intrinsic satisfaction factors (e.g., principal, students, colleagues), the inclusion of these two extrinsic factors in the present study allowed for a more comprehensive and accurate measurement of job satisfaction among Greek preschool teachers.

Regarding the third research question, preschool teachers identified the nature of their work as a primary factor contributing to their satisfaction. They perceived their role as teachers as important and the profession as creative and enjoyable. Similar findings have been reported in previous studies (Hall-Kenyon et al., 2014; Tarasiadou & Platsidou, 2009; Tsigilis et al., 2006). Following closely, teachers expressed satisfaction with their relationships with students and colleagues, as well as their collaboration with the principal. These results indicate that social relationships at work play a significant role in job satisfaction (Admiraal et al., 2019; Taleb, 2013). The high level of satisfaction may also be attributed to the fact that the relatively small staffing in Greece facilitates teachers’ ability to build positive collaborative relationships within their work environment (Tarasiadou & Platsidou, 2009).

With respect to the “Working Conditions” subscale, participants reported a moderate level of satisfaction. This dimension captures the perceived quality of the work environment, emphasizing the adequacy of infrastructure and the aesthetic characteristics of the preschool setting. The moderate satisfaction level is not surprising, given the frequently cited inadequate logistical infrastructure of Greek preschool education and the shortage of equipment and educational materials. Consequently, an increase in funding and commitment from the Ministry of Education to enhance the physical and material infrastructure could lead to the improvement of the working environment and help maximize the productivity of preschool teachers.

Participants reported moderate satisfaction with the prestige of their job. They felt that their work does not receive the respect and recognition it deserves from society. This finding was not unexpected, as empirical evidence supports the progressive devaluation of teachers’ prestige by society, the state, and parents, both in Greece and internationally (e.g., Hargreaves et al., 2007; Kraft & Lyon, 2024; Symeonidis, 2015). A similarly low level of satisfaction was reported in a qualitative study employing semi-structured interviews, conducted within a comparable cultural context in Cyprus (Zembylas & Papanastasiou, 2006). The diminished prestige of preschool teachers may stem from the perception held by some in society that they are merely ‘babysitters’ who engage in storytelling, singing, and dancing with young children (Granger et al., 2022; Lee et al., 2009), rather than recognizing them as specially trained and highly qualified professionals.

In addition, preschool teachers reported low satisfaction with their salaries. Low satisfaction with financial income is a persistent and consistent finding in both Greek and international studies conducted among teachers across all educational levels and diverse cultural contexts (e.g., Lee & Quek, 2018; Taleb, 2013; Tarasiadou & Platsidou, 2009; Toropova et al., 2021). In Greece, teachers’ salary is perceived as being lower than those in other professions, and teachers themselves feel that their compensation does not align with their expectations or the level of work they perform. This disparity, compounded by the high cost of living, significantly affects their overall satisfaction.

Findings concerning salary and prestige can also be interpreted within the broader context of European and OECD-wide trends. EU and OECD reports have highlighted preschool teachers’ dissatisfaction with their salaries and professional prestige. For example, in France and Italy, preschool teachers have voiced concerns over low pay and limited professional recognition, which have been linked to high turnover rates and recruitment difficulties (OECD, 2019, 2023). Similarly, in the United Kingdom, a recent survey indicates that preschool teachers frequently perceive their profession as undervalued compared with other educational levels (Bonetti, 2019). In contrast, countries such as Sweden and Finland, where preschool teachers benefit from higher salaries and strong societal recognition, report comparatively higher levels of job satisfaction and lower attrition (OECD, 2021).

Although preschool teachers reported low satisfaction with extrinsic factors, they expressed a high level of satisfaction with intrinsic sources, particularly the nature of their work, which they identified as the most significant source of fulfillment. It appears that teachers working with preschool children find great enjoyment in teaching and interacting with them. This is particularly encouraging, as it suggests that their dedication to the profession serves as a strong intrinsic motivator, driving them to strive for high learning outcomes despite the challenges they face. Nevertheless, the sources of dissatisfaction cannot be overlooked, as they are primarily responsible for teachers’ decisions to leave the profession (Symeonidis, 2015). Addressing the devaluation of teachers’ roles and contributions requires a collaborative effort among teachers, the state, social organizations, and unions, with a shared goal of elevating the prestige of the teaching occupation.

More specifically, several practical and policy-oriented recommendations may be proposed. First, educational authorities and policymakers should prioritize the revision of compensation schemes for preschool teachers, ensuring that salaries reflect not only the demands and complexity of the role but also align with the broader cost of living. Incremental improvements in remuneration may enhance retention and reinforce the profession’s attractiveness. Second, systematic efforts should be made to elevate the societal image of preschool education. Such efforts could include emphasizing the pedagogical significance and specialized expertise required in preschool education, along with institutional recognition through national awards, professional development incentives, media representation, and inclusion in public discourse. Additionally, integrating teacher voices into policy dialogues may foster a sense of agency and professional value. By addressing both material and symbolic sources of dissatisfaction, such measures can contribute to strengthening professional commitment and improving overall educational quality.

Of course, the present study is not free of limitations. Reported results were based on a convenience sample of preschool teachers, which restricts the generalizability of the findings. If a full mapping of preschool teachers’ job satisfaction is to be obtained, then, of course, a randomly selected sample should be used. Although findings regarding the factorial validity and internal consistency of the extended TSI are encouraging, other psychometric properties of the instrument have not been thoroughly examined and should be further explored in future studies, such as exploring test-retest reliability and the association with other instruments measuring related concepts (e.g., well-being, organizational commitment, occupational stress, and burnout). Moreover, the extended TSI was tested in preschool teachers within a specific educational context, namely the Greek. Greece has been characterized as a semi-collectivistic society (Hofstede & Hofstede, n.d.) and its educational system as centralized (European Commission et al., n.d.). Thus, examining the factorial validity of the extended TSI across other levels of education and cultural settings with different educational structures is an endeavor of both scientific and practical merit. If the extended TSI psychometric properties are replicated in follow-up studies, then researchers and practitioners can rely on a comprehensive instrument, specifically developed within the field of education, to measure levels of teachers’ job satisfaction and make meaningful comparisons. Finally, longitudinal designs may also provide deeper insight into how changes in policy and work conditions influence job satisfaction over time.

5. Conclusions

This study enriches the literature on teacher job satisfaction by validating an extended version of the Teachers’ Satisfaction Inventory (TSI) in the underexplored context of Greek preschool education. The revised instrument demonstrated strong psychometric properties and confirmed a seven-factor structure, including the newly added dimensions of salary and occupational prestige. While teachers reported high satisfaction with intrinsic aspects of their work, significant dissatisfaction was found with extrinsic factors, particularly financial compensation and societal recognition. These findings highlight the need for policy measures addressing both economic and symbolic aspects of the profession.