Next Article in Journal
Project-Based Learning as a Catalyst for Integrated STEM Education
Previous Article in Journal
Monolingual Early Childhood Educators Teaching Multilingual Children: A Scoping Review
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Education Sciences
Volume 15
Issue 7
10.3390/educsci15070870
education-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

From Implementation to Application: An Empirical Analysis of Teachers’ Media and ICT Skills in the Reform Process

by
Marina Grgić
1,* and
Lynn Bolliger
2
1
Institut für Forschung, Entwicklung und Evaluation, Pädagogische Hochschule Wallis, Alte Simplonstrasse 33, CH-3900 Brig, Switzerland
2
Institut für Professionalisierung und Systementwicklung IPSE, Interkantonale Hochschule für Heilpädagogik Zürich, Schaffhauserstrasse 239, CH-8050 Zürich, Switzerland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Educ. Sci. 2025, 15(7), 870; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15070870
Submission received: 15 May 2025 / Revised: 27 June 2025 / Accepted: 4 July 2025 / Published: 7 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Curriculum and Instruction)
Versions Notes

Abstract

The implementation of new curricula presents significant challenges for teachers and necessitates the adaptation of their professional competencies. This study examines how the digital skills of Swiss teachers differ during and after the implementation of the Media and Information Literacy (MIL) modular curriculum. To achieve this, two independent samples totaling 617 teachers were surveyed at different stages of the reform. The analysis employed a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to identify differences in the four facets of MIL competence between the samples. The results indicate that MIL competencies did not improve uniformly. While no significant differences were found in the facets of ‘ICT knowledge and application’ and ‘media education knowledge and application’, significant differences were observed in the facets of ‘specialized didactics MIL’ and ‘interdisciplinary pedagogical and didactic knowledge’. The latter facet showed higher values after the reform, likely due to increased exposure to further training measures. These findings illustrate that teachers’ competencies can develop differently throughout a reform process, highlighting the importance of targeted professional development programs. The study provides valuable empirical findings for educational research and offers practical implications for the design of future reform processes.

1. Introduction

Curriculum reforms are a key strategy for adapting education systems to social and technological developments. Such reforms, including the introduction of the ‘media and information literacy’ (MIL)1 module curriculum in Switzerland, entail specific requirements on teachers. The new module curriculum mandates that educators prepare their students for the digital age and the modern workplace (Educa.ch, 2020). This curriculum reform introduces new expectations regarding both learning content and teaching methods related to digital literacy (Grgić, 2023c).
Teachers are widely seen as agents of change (Fitria & Suminah, 2020), and their professional competence is considered a decisive factor in the success or failure of curriculum implementation (Eickelmann & Vennemann, 2017; Ertmer, 2005; Grgić, 2023b). Beyond the provision of suitable technical infrastructure and equitable access for students, the effective integration of digital education into the classroom strongly depends on teachers’ competencies (Trucano, 2016). As central actors in delivering the competencies outlined in the curriculum (Oelkers, 2010), they are expected to possess sufficient digital skills—a requirement also emphasized by Swiss authorities to ensure the successful embedding of the MIL module in educational practice (Arbeitsgruppe ICT und Medien, 2015; Educa, 2021).
While digital competence has become a central pillar in educational reforms internationally, empirical studies suggest that the implementation processes and their effects on teacher competence vary greatly. In Norway, digital competence was institutionalized as a basic skill across all subjects, requiring a major shift in teacher education and professional practice (Krumsvik, 2014). Similarly, European in-service training systems show considerable variation in how effectively digital competencies are integrated, often lacking targeted support that would ensure sustainable competence development (Hrytsenchuk et al., 2018).
This study builds on these findings by offering a differentiated analysis of how teachers’ MIL competencies evolve over time based on two independent samples surveyed during and after the implementation phase. Additionally, it seeks to provide insights into the evolution of teachers’ competencies during a school reform—the introduction of the MIL module curriculum.

2. Theoretical Framework

Numerous school reforms are currently underway worldwide, with the integration of information and communication technologies (ICTs) into curricula playing a central role. These reforms aim to better prepare students for the digital society and workforce (Gouëdard et al., 2020). Switzerland is following this international trend by introducing the ‘Media and ICT’ (MIL) module curriculum to embed digital skills as an integral part of education. Teachers are not only mediators of knowledge but also designers of teaching–learning processes supported by digital technologies (Arbeitsgruppe ICT und Medien, 2015; Educa.ch, 2020).
The introduction of such curricula poses significant challenges for education systems. From a theoretical standpoint, the implementation of digital education reforms must be understood through the lens of organizational and professional change. Fullan (2007) argues that lasting educational change requires alignment between policy, school leadership, and teacher development, with continuous professional learning at its core. Similarly, Korthagen (2017) highlights that sustainable change in teacher practice arises from aligning external reform goals with teachers’ intrinsic motivation and reflective processes.
School development theory further elaborates this perspective. Rolff (2023) emphasizes the interdependence of instructional, organizational, and personal development within schools. He posits that effective curriculum reform necessitates a clear focus on teacher professional development, which serves as a critical lever for sustainable instructional and organizational transformation. This triangulated approach is particularly relevant for digital reforms, where evolving teacher roles and competencies are central to successful implementation.

2.1. The Module Curriculum for MIL

The MIL module curriculum for compulsory education is divided into three central areas: media, computer science, and application skills (Arbeitsgruppe ICT und Medien, 2015).
In the field of media, students acquire the ability to navigate actively, critically, and creatively within a digital society. They learn to use media appropriately and to engage responsibly with themselves and others (Arbeitsgruppe ICT und Medien, 2015, p. 10).
The field of computer science teaches basic concepts related to the automated processing, storage and transmission of information (Kanton Wallis, 2018).
In the area of application skills, students learn to use ICTs effectively and efficiently in various academic and extracurricular contexts, such as designing digital presentations. These three areas are not strictly separated, as many competencies overlap across these domains (Arbeitsgruppe ICT und Medien, 2015, p. 10).
The module curriculum is taught throughout the entire compulsory school period. In the first four years of schooling, this instruction occurs across all subjects. In the subsequent years, it is the responsibility of the individual cantons to determine the time and content framework for implementation (Arbeitsgruppe ICT und Medien, 2015, p. 10).

2.2. The MIL Competency Model for Assessing Teacher Competencies

In response to the growing demands of digital transformation in education, various theoretical models have been developed to conceptualize the professional competencies required of teachers. Internationally, the European Commission’s DigCompEdu framework defines 22 essential digital teaching competencies across six domains: Professional Engagement, Digital Resources, Teaching and Learning, Assessment, Learner Empowerment, and Facilitating Learners’ Digital Competence (Caena & Redecker, 2019). This framework supports the development of national models by offering a flexible yet comprehensive structure.
Complementary to DigCompEdu is the TPACK model (Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge), which breaks down the knowledge required for effective digital teaching into three core areas: Technological Knowledge (TK), Pedagogical Knowledge (PK), Content Knowledge (CK), and their intersections (PCK, TPK, TCK, and TPACK) (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). This model provides a conceptual basis for understanding how teachers integrate digital tools into subject-specific instruction.
Translating these frameworks into national contexts requires contextualization. In Switzerland, the MIL competency model was developed as part of the introduction of the MIL module in the national curriculum (Grgić, 2023b, 2023c). It draws on international models while addressing specific educational goals and curricular structures in the Swiss context.
The MIL competency model distinguishes four facets of competence: ICT knowledge and application (technical skills for using digital tools), media education knowledge and application (critical reflection on media use and its didactic integration), subject didactics MIL (subject-specific didactic approaches to teaching MIL content), and interdisciplinary pedagogical and didactic knowledge. For each facet, specific competencies are defined, accompanied by illustrative examples. For instance, the competency of ‘knowing the media environment of the pupils and integrating it into the classroom’ falls under the facet of ‘subject didactics MIL’. The four facets of competence, along with the individual competencies within them, contribute to the calculation of an overall score, which represents the level of MIL competency.
Overall, the MIL competency model demonstrates conceptual alignment with both DigCompEdu and TPACK. This compatibility reinforces its relevance not only within the Swiss educational landscape but also in broader international and comparative contexts.
Empirical results indicate that MIL competence, or the overall score at the beginning of the reform implementation, is at a medium–high level (Grgić, 2023a). Furthermore, the results show that teachers excel in the areas of ‘media education knowledge and application’ and ‘interdisciplinary, pedagogical and didactic knowledge’, while ‘subject didactics MIL’ significantly lags behind the overall score (Grgić, 2023a). However, there remains a lack of systematic knowledge regarding how these competencies have developed throughout the reform.

2.3. Empirical Findings on Competence Development During Reform Processes

Empirical studies demonstrate that the successful implementation of new curricula is highly dependent on teachers’ professional competence (Deng, 2022; Taole, 2015). Teachers who possess a solid understanding of the new curriculum content are more effective in its implementation (Shulman, 1986). Conversely, inadequate training and limited opportunities for continuing education lead to uncertainties and implementation challenges (Chan, 2010).
However, existing studies yield contradictory results regarding the impact of reform processes on teachers’ perceived and actual competencies. On the one hand, some studies indicate that reform efforts can promote competence development, particularly when accompanied by targeted continuing education (Bennett et al., 1992; Hausman & Ruzek, 1995). On the other hand, other findings suggest that new and unfamiliar demands introduced by reforms can create uncertainty and doubt, resulting in a subjective perception of declining competencies—especially when professional support and training are lacking (Bennett et al., 1992; Roslin et al., 2023).
A longitudinal study conducted by Bennett et al. (1992) investigated how primary school teachers perceived their competence in light of the newly introduced National Curriculum in England and Wales. Results indicated improvement in perceived competence in the natural sciences but a decline in English and mathematics. The increased confidence in science teaching was linked to clearer curricular guidelines, greater emphasis on the subject, and more instructional time, which likely enhanced teachers’ sense of efficacy. In contrast, the deterioration in English and mathematics may have stemmed from teachers becoming more accurate in assessing their abilities as they gained familiarity with the strict achievement benchmarks of the new curriculum (Bennett et al., 1992).
Similarly, Hausman and Ruzek (1995) examined the integration of health education in U.S. elementary schools and found that teachers who engaged in professional development improved their willingness and capacity to teach the subject. Conversely, teachers who did not participate in such programs showed a decline in engagement over time—likely due to a lack of reinforcement and opportunities to build competence.
Roslin et al. (2023) reported comparable findings in the context of preschool education reforms. Their study emphasized that many teachers were unprepared for the new curriculum due to insufficient knowledge and training, which severely limited successful implementation.
In summary, while some reform contexts offer opportunities for professional growth through structured learning, others risk undermining teachers’ confidence if adequate support is not provided. The extent to which teachers’ MIL competencies evolve over the course of a curriculum reform remains under-researched. This study seeks to address this gap by comparing the MIL competencies of two different samples of teachers during and after the implementation of the MIL module curriculum.

2.4. The Present Study: Research Questions and Hypotheses

Although prior research has discussed general shifts in teacher competence during curriculum reforms, most studies have not disaggregated these shifts by specific competence dimensions. Furthermore, digital competence has become a core pillar in modern curriculum reform, yet systematic research on its differentiated development over time remains scarce. In Norway, for instance, digital competence was introduced as a foundational skill in all subjects, fundamentally shifting expectations for teacher education and in-service training (Krumsvik, 2014). European studies further reveal that digital competence training for teachers is often uneven and insufficient to ensure long-term effectiveness (Hrytsenchuk et al., 2018).
This study addresses these gaps by examining how four distinct MIL competence facets differ between two reform phases, using two temporally distinct samples. In doing so, it contributes empirical evidence on the differentiated nature of teacher competence development in the digital context. Therefore, the following research question is formulated: How do the MIL competencies of teachers surveyed during the implementation of the MIL module curriculum differ from those surveyed after the completion of the reform?
Due to the contradictory empirical findings, an undirected, exploratory hypothesis is formulated for the present study. It is anticipated that teachers’ MIL competence may improve, stagnate, or even decline. Additionally, it is possible that the various facets of competence will develop differently throughout the course of the reform.

3. Methods

3.1. Design and Sampling

The data for this study originated from two distinct research projects. Sample 1, collected during the implementation phase of the MIL module curriculum in the 2022/23 school year, was derived from the SNSF-funded research project ‘Reform@work’ (Grant 188867) (Swiss National Science Foundation, 2023). Teachers from 25 primary schools across five cantons participated in this survey. Sample 1 included 347 teachers (86.5% female, 13% male, 0.6% diverse) with an average age of 42 years (SD = 10.46, min. = 22, max. = 63) and an average professional experience of 16 years (SD = 10.80, min. = 1, max. = 45). Sample 2 was surveyed after the implementation of the MIL module curriculum in November 2024. This sample was part of a consultation on the status of digital transformation within a large Swiss school district comprising multiple school sites. In preparation for this consultation, a preliminary survey was administered to assess teachers’ self-perceived competencies and professional development needs. A total of 363 teachers from this community participated in the survey. Of these, 93 were Cycle 32 teachers. To improve the comparability between the samples, these individuals were excluded from the analyses, resulting in a final sample size of N = 270 (86.3% female, 13.3% male, 0.4% diverse). This sample had an average age of 43 years (SD = 11.64, min. = 19, max. = 65) and an average work experience of 16 years (SD = 11.82, min. = 0, max. = 45). Participation in both surveys was voluntary and anonymous, and the teachers provided their informed consent.
Although the sampling context differed from that of the first survey, both samples consist of Swiss primary school teachers who were simultaneously affected by the same national curriculum reform. This shared structural and temporal context enhances the comparability of the two groups, despite differences in sampling strategy.
Both surveys were conducted online. Different additional variables were collected in the two surveys (e.g., school culture3 in survey 1 and questions regarding artificial intelligence in survey 24). As these variables were only collected in one of the two surveys, they are not considered in this analysis. The same tool was used to assess MIL competencies in both surveys. The values on this scale were compared between the two samples.

3.2. Measures

Teachers’ MIL competencies were assessed using the MIL competency model (Grgić, 2023b). This competency model is structured around four different facets: ICT knowledge and application, media education knowledge and application, subject didactics MIL, and interdisciplinary pedagogical and didactic knowledge. An example item for the facet ‘ICT knowledge and application’ is ‘I can explain how data can be lost and know the most important measures to avoid this’. Participants were asked to rate 30 items on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (completely true).

3.3. Reliability Analysis of the Measures Used

The reliability of all subscales, as well as the overall scale, was high in both samples, as indicated by Cronbach’s α. The exact values are shown in Table 1.

3.4. Data Analysis

Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (IBM SPSS Statistics, Version 27; Pallant, 2016). The number of missing values was minimal, with a maximum of 2.3% for the item ‘I can cover the current developments in the field of MIL in my lessons’. The missing values were not replaced for the analyses, as mean values were calculated for all subscales.
To test the hypothesis, the multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted using the dependent variables: ICT knowledge and application, media education knowledge and application, didactics MIL, and interdisciplinary pedagogical and didactic knowledge. The independent variable was the factor sample, which included Sample 1 and Sample 2.

4. Results

4.1. Descriptive Statistics

The descriptive values, separated by sample, along with the effect sizes of the mean differences—considering the different sample sizes—are shown in Table 2. Both samples exhibited the highest values in the competence facet of interdisciplinary pedagogical and didactic knowledge, while the lowest values were observed in the competence facet of subject didactics MIL. The mean values for the competence facets of ICT knowledge and application, media education knowledge and application, subject didactics MIL, and the overall scale were higher in Sample 1 compared to Sample 2. Conversely, the mean value for the competence facet of interdisciplinary pedagogical and didactic knowledge was greater in Sample 2 than in Sample 1.

4.2. MANOVA

To determine whether the differences in the subscales between the two samples are statistically significant, a MANOVA was conducted. The multivariate effect of the sample factor (Sample 1 vs. Sample 2) on the dependent variables was statistically significant (F(4, 607) = 13.80, p < 0.001). However, the univariate effect of the sample factor on the competence facets of ICT knowledge and application (F(1, 610) = 3.76, p = 0.053) and media education knowledge and application (F(1, 610) = 1.00, p = 0.319) was not significant. In contrast, the univariate effect of the sample factor on the competence facets of subject didactics MIL (F(1, 610) = 13.23, p < 0.001) and interdisciplinary pedagogical and didactic knowledge (F(1, 610) = 22.78, p < 0.001) was significant. In the competence facet of subject didactics MIL, Sample 1 exhibited higher values (M1 = 3.41, M2 = 3.15), while in the subscale of interdisciplinary pedagogical and didactic knowledge, Sample 2 demonstrated higher values (M1 = 4.30, M2 = 4.54).

4.3. Effect Sizes

The effect sizes of the mean differences for the individual subscales and the overall scale were calculated using the Psychometrica program (Lenhard & Lenhard, 2013), accounting for the varying sample sizes. According to Cohen (1988), the effect sizes of the mean differences for all dependent variables are small (see Table 2).

5. Discussion

This study assessed the digital competencies of teachers during and after the implementation of the MIL module curriculum. Two different samples of teachers were surveyed regarding their digital skills at two distinct times in the school reform process. One sample was interviewed during the implementation of the MIL module curriculum, while the other was interviewed afterwards.
The results indicate that the development of competence varied across the different facets of MIL competence. While no significant differences were observed in the areas of ICT knowledge and application or media education knowledge and application between the two samples, significant differences were identified in the facets of subject didactics MIL and interdisciplinary pedagogical and didactic knowledge.
These findings align with previous empirical studies suggesting that reform processes can have varying effects on teachers’ competence development (Bennett et al., 1992; Hausman & Ruzek, 1995). In particular, the findings of Bennett et al. (1992) indicate that teachers perceive improvements in their competencies in certain areas following a reform, while they may experience uncertainties in others. This may help explain the present results: the higher perceived competence of teachers in subject-specific didactic MIL during the implementation phase (Sample 1) may stem from the reform necessitating a greater examination of subject-specific didactic teaching methods. However, once the reform was completed (Sample 2), new challenges and uncertainties may have emerged, leading to a decline in the self-assessment of this competence. This observation corresponds with Bennett et al.’s (1992) evaluation that teachers assess their actual abilities more realistically after a reform.
Conversely, the facet of interdisciplinary pedagogical and didactic knowledge shows a higher level of competence in the second sample. This suggests that teachers likely enhanced their skills in this area after the reform, particularly through participation in continuing education measures. This finding aligns with the conclusions of Hausman and Ruzek (1995), which suggest that teachers can develop their skills in specific areas through prolonged exposure to reform and targeted training.
The results of this study also corroborate the findings of Roslin et al. (2023), which indicate that teachers are often inadequately prepared to meet the new demands of curriculum reforms. If insufficient training opportunities were available during the implementation phase, this could explain the decline in perceived competence in certain areas, such as subject didactics MIL. It is equally important to consider subject-specific factors in the development of such competencies. Not all school subjects may lend themselves equally well to digital integration, and the nature and extent of MIL-relevant content and methods can vary significantly across disciplines. This may help explain why teachers from different subject backgrounds experience varying levels of confidence and progress in their MIL-related competencies. Future implementation strategies and professional development programs should therefore take these disciplinary differences into account and provide differentiated support that reflects the diverse demands of each subject area.
Overall, the findings underscore that curriculum reforms do not necessarily lead to a uniform increase in competence. Instead, differentiated effects are evident, depending on the specific facet of competence. While some areas were strengthened during the reform process, others experienced uncertainties or even a decline in perceived competence. This highlights the need for targeted continuing education programs before, during, and after the implementation of new curricula to adequately prepare teachers for evolving requirements.

5.1. Study Limitations and Implications for Future Research

A significant methodological limitation of this study is that the two samples were collected at different times and involved different participants. Therefore, causal conclusions regarding the development of individual competence trajectories cannot be drawn, and comparability between the samples is limited. Additionally, survey 1 was conducted within a research project, while survey 2 stemmed from a consultation, which may also have influenced the way in which teachers decided to reply to the questions, which were all self-reported.
Moreover, it cannot be ruled out that the two samples differ systematically due to unmeasured cohort effects. For instance, teachers who responded during the implementation phase may have experienced higher levels of external pressure or motivation compared to those surveyed after the reform. Differences in school environments, professional development exposure, or regional educational policies may have also contributed to the variations in perceived competencies. These contextual and temporal differences between the two cohorts represent a key limitation that may affect the interpretation of the findings.
The found effects therefore have to be interpreted with caution not only because they were small but also due to these methodological limitations. We, however, still believe that teacher competencies should be considered during school reform processes and would like to contribute to this discussion. The decision to formulate an exploratory, undirected hypothesis was methodologically appropriate, given the previous contradictory research results, which suggested that both improvements and stagnation or declines in competencies could be expected (e.g., Bennett et al., 1992; Hausman & Ruzek, 1995; Roslin et al., 2023).
The results show that digital competencies among teachers do not evolve uniformly across reform phases. This differentiated development has concrete implications for future professional development strategies. Future research should, therefore, employ longitudinal study designs to examine the development of teachers’ MIL competencies across the reform timeline. Additionally, advanced analytical approaches could be used to identify distinct competence profiles and developmental patterns.
Qualitative methods, such as participant observation or interview-based content analysis (Mayring, 2007), could yield deeper insights into teachers’ lived experiences during reform implementation. Moreover, future research should more explicitly examine influencing factors such as continuing education offerings and school conditions (e.g., ICT infrastructure), as these might significantly shape competence development.
In particular, future studies should investigate how specific professional development approaches affect distinct aspects of digital competence. For instance, training formats tailored to address domain-specific gaps—such as the integration of digital tools in subject didactics—could be especially effective. Additionally, longitudinal and qualitative designs would be valuable for capturing individual learning trajectories and institutional conditions.

5.2. Conclusions and Practical Implications

This study provides important empirical, theoretical, and practical insights into the development of teacher competencies during and after the implementation of curriculum reform in the fields of MIL. The results indicate that reform processes do not necessarily lead to a uniform increase in competence; rather, they can produce differentiated effects. While teachers perceive their interdisciplinary pedagogical and didactic knowledge as strengthened after the reform, they believe their subject-specific didactic MIL competencies experienced a decline. Although the observed effect sizes were small, this should not be interpreted as a lack of significance. Rather, it may reflect the difficulty of fostering change without explicitly targeting it—a finding that underscores the need for a more systematic and focused implementation of training programs. In large-scale educational settings, even modest improvements can have substantial long-term impacts, especially when effects accumulate across systems or over time.
From a policy and practice standpoint, these results suggest that small shifts in teacher competencies may indicate deeper structural challenges. One such challenge is the need for more differentiated, subject-specific professional development—particularly in light of curriculum reforms that often affect thousands of educators simultaneously. Acknowledging the complex and uneven nature of competence development is essential for designing professional development that is both scalable and sensitive to diverse teaching contexts.
Research further supports the idea that small effect sizes can translate into meaningful change when interventions are applied systemically and sustained over time (Vanwynsberghe et al., 2017).
While the study was conducted within the specific context of the Swiss education system, the findings may hold relevance for other countries undergoing similar curriculum reforms in MIL. Differentiated patterns in perceived teacher competencies and the need for targeted professional development are not unique to Switzerland; they have also been identified in international research (Frankling et al., 2017; Kahmann et al., 2022). However, structural characteristics such as Switzerland’s decentralized education system, high degree of school autonomy, and well-established continuing education structures may limit the direct transferability of these results. Therefore, any application to other national or institutional contexts should be approached with careful consideration of local conditions.
Nonetheless, the overarching principle remains applicable: To foster effective competence development, professional learning opportunities must be strategically designed and tailored to individual needs. Modular, needs-based formats—aligned with the MIL competency model (Grgić, 2023b, 2023c)—can provide targeted and sustainable support. For example, teachers with specific needs in subject-related didactics should receive training that focuses on integrating digital methods into their instructional design.
Moreover, professional development should be embedded in systemic school development processes. As Rolff (2023) highlights, personal development becomes effective only when it is integrated into the broader organizational context. This requires school leadership to develop long-term development plans that align with curricular goals and institutional needs. Such an integrated approach resonates with Fullan’s (2007) perspective, which argues that meaningful teacher learning must be grounded in daily school practice rather than detached training settings. Embedding professional development within everyday routines—through professional learning communities, peer collaboration, and structured reflection—not only enhances relevance but also promotes sustainability. However, this requires schools to provide institutional scaffolding, including protected time and space for teachers to engage in continuous, practice-based development and to iteratively refine their digital competencies. International examples provide valuable guidance. Estonia, for instance, has implemented a structured professional development framework directly linked to national digital competence standards (Mukan et al., 2019).
The results underscore the importance of existing theories on the implementation of educational reforms, particularly regarding the role of teacher competencies and professional development during the reform process. The study confirms that reforms can have both beneficial and inhibiting effects on teachers’ self-perception, depending on the quality of support systems and continuing education.
In summary, the study demonstrates that curriculum reforms necessitate targeted and long-term support for teachers to strengthen their skills across all relevant areas over time. This requires close collaboration among schools, education policymakers and teacher training institutions to ensure the effectiveness of reform measures.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.G. and L.B.; methodology, M.G. and L.B.; software, M.G. and L.B.; validation, M.G.; formal analysis, L.B.; investigation, M.G. and L.B.; resources, M.G. and L.B.; data curation, M.G. and L.B.; writing—original draft preparation, M.G. and L.B.; writing—review and editing, M.G.; visualization., M.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was approved by the SNF Ethics Committee (188867; 2020-03-01).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the University of Teacher Education Bern (PHBern) for its invaluable support during the data collection and analysis process.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Notes

1
In international discourse, the term ‘media and information literacy’ (MIL) is common (Frau-Meigs et al., 2017). The term ‘media and ICT’ in Switzerland refers to aspects of media and information technology education, similar to the international terminology. For clarity, the international term will be used in the following discussion.
2
The Swiss education system divides compulsory schooling into three cycles. The first cycle includes kindergarten and Grades 1 and 2 of primary school. The second cycle covers Grades 3 to 6 of primary school, while the third cycle covers Grades 7 to 9 of secondary Level 1 in Switzerland (Bildungsdirektoren-Konferenz Zentralschweiz [BKZ] Geschäftsstelle, 2022).
3
For the relevance of school culture in school reform processes see Grgić and Jutzi (2024).
4
The use of large language models had not yet emerged during study 1. Its implications should however be researched in the future.

References

  1. Arbeitsgruppe ICT und Medien. (2015, February 23). Schlussbericht der arbeitsgruppe zu medien und informatik im Lehrplan 21. D-EDK. [Google Scholar]
  2. Bennett, S. N., Wragg, E. C., Carré, C. G., & Carter, D. (1992). A longitudinal study of primary teachers’ perceived competence in, and concerns about, national Curriculum implementation. Research Papers in Education, 7(1), 53–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Bildungsdirektoren-Konferenz Zentralschweiz (BKZ) Geschäftsstelle. (2022). Willkommen beim Lehrplan 21. BKZ. Available online: https://www.lehrplan21.ch/ (accessed on 3 March 2023).
  4. Caena, F., & Redecker, C. (2019). Aligning teacher competence frameworks to 21st century chal-lenges: The case for the European digital competence framework for educators (DIGCOMPEDU). European Journal of Education, 54(3), 356–369. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Chan, J. K.-S. (2010). Teachers’ responses to curriculum policy implementation: Colonial constraints for curriculum reform. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 9(2), 93–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [Google Scholar]
  7. Deng, Z. (2022). Powerful knowledge, educational potential and knowledge-rich curriculum: Pushing the boundaries. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 54(5), 599–617. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Educa. (2021). Digitalisierung in der bildung: Bericht im auftrag des Staatssekretariats für Bildung, Forschung und Innovation (SBFI) und der schweizerischen Konferenz der kantonalen Erziehungsdirektoren (EDK) im rahmen des bildungsmonitorings. Available online: https://www.educa.ch/bericht-digitalisierung.html (accessed on 8 February 2023).
  9. Educa.ch. (2020). Lehrpläne [curricula]. Available online: https://www.educa.ch/sites/default/files/2021-10/Digitalisierung_in_der_Bildung.pdf (accessed on 8 February 2023).
  10. Eickelmann, B., & Vennemann, M. (2017). Teachers’ attitudes and beliefs regarding ICT in teaching and learning in European countries. European Educational Research Journal, 16(6), 733–761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Ertmer, P. A. (2005). Teacher pedagogical beliefs: The final frontier in our quest for technology integration? Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(4), 25–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Fitria, H., & Suminah, S. (2020). Role of teachers in digital instructional era. Journal of Social Work and Science Education, 1(1), 70–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Frankling, T., Jarvis, J., & Bell, M. (2017). Leading secondary teachers’ understandings and practices of differentiation through professional learning. Leading and Managing, 23(2), 72–86. [Google Scholar]
  14. Frau-Meigs, D., Velez, I., & Michel, J. F. (Eds.). (2017). Public policies in media and information literacy in Europe: Cross-country comparisons. Routledge. [Google Scholar]
  15. Fullan, M. (2007). The new meaning of educational change (4th ed.). Teachers College Press. [Google Scholar]
  16. Gouëdard, P., Pont, B., Hyttinen, S., & Huang, P. (2020). Curriculum reform: A literature review to support effective implementation. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Grgić, M. (2023a). Competencies and beliefs of Swiss teachers with regard to the modular curriculum ‘Media and ICT’. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 5, 100288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Grgić, M. (2023b). Die rolle derllehrperson und der schulkultur im rahmen von schulreformen: Eine empirische untersuchung am beispiel der modullehrplaneinführung “Medien und Informatik” in der Schweiz [Ph.D. thesis, Paris Lodron University Salzburg]. Available online: https://eplus.uni-salzburg.at/obvusbhs/content/titleinfo/10000637 (accessed on 12 December 2023).
  19. Grgić, M. (2023c). Digitale kompetenz von Lehrpersonen für den medien-und Informatikunterricht in der Schweiz. PFLB—PraxisForschungLehrer*innenBildung, 5(1), 18–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Grgić, M., & Jutzi, M. (2024). Linking school culture to successful curriculum reform. Education Sciences, 14(6), 558. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Hausman, A. J., & Ruzek, S. B. (1995). Implementation of comprehensive school health education in elementary schools: Focus on teacher concerns. The Journal of School Health, 65(3), 81–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Hrytsenchuk, O., Ivaniuk, I., Kravchyna, O., Malytska, I. D., Ovcharuk, O., & Soroko, N. (2018). European experience of the teachers’ digital competence development in the context of modern educational reforms. Information Technologies and Learning Tools, 65, 316–336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Kahmann, R., Droop, M., & Lazonder, A. W. (2022). Meta-analysis of professional development programs in differentiated instruction. International Journal of Educational Research, 116, 102072. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Kanton Wallis. (2018). Modul medien und informatik. Available online: https://vs.lehrplan.ch/index.php?code=b|10|0&la=yes (accessed on 12 December 2023).
  25. Korthagen, F. (2017). Inconvenient truths about teacher learning: Towards professional development 3.0. Teachers and Teaching, 23(4), 387–405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Krumsvik, R. (2014). Teacher educators’ digital competence. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 58(3), 269–280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Lenhard, W., & Lenhard, A. (2013). Normwertrechner [norm scale calculator]. ResearchGate. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Mayring, P. (2007). Qualitative inhaltsanalyse. Grundlagen und techniken [Qualitative content analysis. Basics and techniques]. Beltz. [Google Scholar]
  29. Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017–1054. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Mukan, N., Noskova, M., & Zinchuk, I. (2019). Teachers’ digital competence development: Estonian state policy in the field. Comparative Professional Pedagogy, 9(1), 26–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Oelkers, J. (2010, November 10). Akzeptanz durch unterstützung: Strategien zur implementation von lehrplan und bildungsstandards. Sparkassenakademie Bayern. Available online: https://www.ife.uzh.ch/dam/jcr:00000000-4a53-efca-0000-000011bc3a6a/ (accessed on 3 March 2023).
  32. Pallant, J. (2016). SPSS survival manual (6th ed.). Allen and Unwin. [Google Scholar]
  33. Rolff, H.-G. (2023). Schulentwicklung kompakt: Modelle, instrumente, perspektiven (4th ed.). Beltz. [Google Scholar]
  34. Roslin, R., Abu Bakar, K., & Madar, M. A. (2023). Teacher competence in the implementation of national preschool curriculum. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 12(1), 1947–1957. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Swiss National Science Foundation. (2023). Reform@work: A multi-perspective study of policy and practice in the Swiss curriculum reform on media and informatics. Available online: https://data.snf.ch/grants/grant/188867 (accessed on 2 April 2024).
  37. Taole, M. J. (2015). Towards a meaningful curriculum implementation in South African schools: Senior phase teachers’ experiences. Africa Education Review, 12(2), 266–279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Trucano, M. (2016). SABER-ICT framework paper for policy analysis: Documenting national educational technology policies around the world and their evolution over time. World Bank Education, Technology & Innovation. Available online: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/han-dle/10986/26107 (accessed on 3 March 2023).
  39. Vanwynsberghe, G., Vanlaar, G., van Damme, J., & de Fraine, B. (2017). Long-term effects of primary schools on non-cognitive outcomes of students at age 17. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 55, 83–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Table 1. The reliability of the scale and its subscales used in both samples.
Table 1. The reliability of the scale and its subscales used in both samples.
(Sub-)ScaleNumber of ItemsCronbach’s α
Sample 1Sample 2
ICT Knowledge and Application100.8890.892
Media Education Knowledge and Application50.8520.800
Didactics MIL80.9000.895
Interdisciplinary Pedagogical and Didactic Knowledge70.9270.871
Overall Scale or MIL Competence300.9420.931
Sample 1 = 346–347, Sample 2 = 267–270.
Table 2. Descriptive values of digital skills.
Table 2. Descriptive values of digital skills.
SampleNMin.Max.MSDd
ICT Knowledge and Application −0.157
13471.005.003.660.81
22701.405.003.530.85
Media Education Knowledge and Application −0.145
13471.005.004.280.64
22701.805.04.190.60
Didactics MIL −0.298
13461.005.003.410.85
22671.005.003.150.90
Interdisciplinary Pedagogical and Didactic Knowledge 0.384
13461.005.004.300.69
22701.575.004.540.53
Total Scale −0.098
13471.005.003.840.63
22701.605.003.780.59
N = sample size of each sample, M = mean, SD = standard deviation, d = effect size of mean differences between samples.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Grgić, M.; Bolliger, L. From Implementation to Application: An Empirical Analysis of Teachers’ Media and ICT Skills in the Reform Process. Educ. Sci. 2025, 15, 870. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15070870

AMA Style

Grgić M, Bolliger L. From Implementation to Application: An Empirical Analysis of Teachers’ Media and ICT Skills in the Reform Process. Education Sciences. 2025; 15(7):870. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15070870

Chicago/Turabian Style

Grgić, Marina, and Lynn Bolliger. 2025. "From Implementation to Application: An Empirical Analysis of Teachers’ Media and ICT Skills in the Reform Process" Education Sciences 15, no. 7: 870. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15070870

APA Style

Grgić, M., & Bolliger, L. (2025). From Implementation to Application: An Empirical Analysis of Teachers’ Media and ICT Skills in the Reform Process. Education Sciences, 15(7), 870. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15070870

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop