From Context to Connection: Client Letters in STEM Integration Curricula

Abstract

Real-world contexts play a crucial role in engaging students and promoting disciplinary synergy in integrated STEM education. One underexplored pedagogical tool for supporting such integration is the “client letter”—a narrative device used to frame engineering design challenges around authentic, real-world problems. This study investigates the role of client letters in synergizing knowledge within immersive engineering design-based STEM integration curricula. We conducted a qualitative document analysis of 107 client letters embedded in 18 freely available K-12 STEM integration curricular units. Using a theoretical framework that aligns immersive education principles with the STEM Integration Framework, we analyzed how these letters support curricular progression, knowledge building, and student engagement. Findings show that client letters structure and scaffold learning through messaging themes that align with the engineering design process (e.g., problem framing, scoping, and design detailing) and support immersive learning through narrative features such as motivation triggers, dramatic structure, and involvement of the self. Based on these findings, we present the Conceptual Framework for Client Letter Development, which categorizes the instructional and narrative functions of client letters. This framework offers practical guidance for educators and curriculum developers seeking to design immersive, integrative STEM learning experiences.

1. Introduction

Context matters for learning. Research has demonstrated this repeatedly. When used thoughtfully, realistic contexts can connect learners with the desired content in personally relevant and engaging ways. Moreover, such contexts can serve as a catalyst for integrating the different STEM disciplines (and beyond), promoting deeper, synergetic learning. Consequently, numerous calls over the years have been made for the development and use of high-quality instructional materials that better link academic content with real-world contexts—thereby supporting integrated STEM experiences in K-12 education. For instance, the Framework for K-12 Science Education (National Research Council, 2012) encourages a strong connection between learned content and relevant, engaging contexts, advocating for learning experiences that reflect real-world practices in both science and engineering. In a study focused on engaging learners and supporting learner agency, Reiser et al. (2021) suggest that implementing this vision strengthens the connection between “students’ interests, ideas, and learning targets” (p. 825). The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS; NGSS Lead States, 2013) identify learning outcomes for students and further encourage the development of quality curricular materials that integrate content and authentic contexts into K-12 classrooms. These K-12 standards suggest that there is value in ensuring “students operate at the intersection of practice, content, and connection” (NGSS Lead States, 2013, p. XVI). They also emphasize that standards alone do not constitute learning experiences, highlighting the need for instructional models and materials to support classroom implementation. Together, these educational initiatives have inspired the creation of a variety of high-quality curricular materials and pedagogical tools that bridge real-world contexts and learned content. However, as such resources are implemented, there is an opportunity to further investigate their role in curricula, the value they offer for STEM synergies, and how they might be leveraged more effectively to advance integrated teaching and learning approaches.

One such pedagogical tool that has been understudied in this regard is the client letter. A client letter is a form of written or electronic communication—whether authentic or fictional—presented to students as coming from a specific “client” seeking help with a particular problem (Moore et al., 2018; Roehrig et al., 2021). In integrated STEM contexts, the client letter outlines relevant criteria and constraints, framing the learning experience through a problem, project, or design challenge. By embedding the task in a real-world and professionally simulated scenario, the client letter can help contextualize the learning experience, engage students in authentic problem-solving, and guide them to meet specified requirements that connect to specific content. Additionally, connecting learned content to real-world experiences in this way has been shown to bolster student motivation (National Research Council, 2000). While research supports the use of client-based scenarios and context-rich storylines to connect real-world experiences with learned content (Brady et al., 2018; Moore, 2008), little is known about how client letters function in this capacity. Therefore, this study examines the role of “client letters” in K-12 STEM curricula and the synergy they provide for advancing integrated approaches to instruction by analyzing 18 freely available integrated STEM curricular units that employ this pedagogical tool. To guide our analysis, we asked: How do client letters serve to synergize knowledge in immersive engineering design-based STEM integration curricula? In particular, we sought to understand how client letters help structure interdisciplinary learning by guiding students to connect knowledge across science, mathematics, and engineering within cohesive, narrative-based design challenges.

To explore the role of client letters in supporting integrated STEM instruction, it is essential to first understand how the literature defines engineering design-based STEM integration and what constitutes effective implementation. In particular, prior research highlights the importance of context in shaping students’ engagement and understanding across disciplines. The following section reviews the literature on STEM integration and engineering design-based teaching, with a focus on the characteristics of motivating and engaging contexts that promote disciplinary synergy—setting the stage for examining client letters as a pedagogical tool to promote STEM synergy.

2. Relevant Literature

To understand how client letters function as pedagogical tools that support integrated and interdisciplinary learning, we first review key dimensions of STEM integration and examine how context, narrative, and student-centered strategies contribute to synergistic instruction. Although numerous definitions of STEM integration exist, a widely accepted perspective describes it as a form of curriculum integration situated within K-12 classrooms, in which real-world contexts are used to support and enhance disciplinary learning (Wang et al., 2011). STEM integration typically includes grade-level aligned learning outcomes drawn from multiple STEM disciplines, often extending to other subject areas as well. These disciplines are intentionally interconnected through the use of crosscutting concepts, which link discipline-specific learning goals and skills (Moore et al., 2020; National Research Council, 2012; NGSS Lead States, 2013). By emphasizing these conceptual connections, STEM integration positions the disciplines as mutually reinforcing—enabling students to develop deeper content knowledge and transferable skills that go beyond what could be achieved within a single subject area (Moore et al., 2020). For example, the NGSS explicitly outline grade-level expectations that integrate disciplinary content across science, engineering, and mathematics.

To examine client letters as a promising tool for fostering synergy in STEM integration, we begin by reviewing literature that illuminates the role of context, narrative, and student-centered strategies in promoting disciplinary synergy. The following sections synthesize existing scholarship in three key areas that provide a foundation for our study: (1) the use of motivating and engaging contexts to support disciplinary synergy, (2) the role of narrative contexts and immersive scenarios in structuring integrated STEM learning, and (3) student-centered instructional strategies that leverage narrative and design-based pedagogies to support contextualized learning and knowledge transfer.

2.1. Motivating and Engaging Contexts for STEM Synergies

Contexts play a pivotal role in integrated STEM instruction by bringing real-world relevance to the classroom and helping students understand why disciplinary concepts matter. These contexts—often built around realistic scenarios, narratives, or problems—situate learning in meaningful experiences that promote student engagement and deeper content understanding. When students see the utility of the content and how it applies to authentic problems, they are more likely to remain motivated and persist through challenging tasks (Kirn & Benson, 2018; National Research Council, 2000). This motivational benefit is especially strong when students can personally relate to the context and the challenge presented.

Motivating and engaging contexts typically involve scenarios that are personally meaningful to students, culturally relevant, and provide a compelling purpose for engaging in the STEM integration activity (Guzey et al., 2016). These contexts help students “build a world” around their learning and make meaning of the instruction in which they are immersed. For example, connecting learned content in an authentic way supports student engagement in learning (Leak et al., 2023). Using authentic situations to help explain and apply learned content is one way to create a motivating and engaging learning experience. Essentially, authenticity implies that student learning is achieved by completing tasks that mimic the actions of real practitioners, making the learning experience clearly applicable (van Oers & Wardekker, 1999). This authentic approach is believed to help students answer their own question of “Why are we learning this?” (Strimel, 2014). Such approaches promote not only disciplinary understanding but also perseverance and creativity.

Engineering design tasks have emerged as a central strategy for linking disciplinary content through meaningful, context-driven problem solving. Integrated STEM instruction often positions students as active problem-solvers working on real-world engineering design challenges—whether designing a fishing lure to learn about buoyancy or planning an energy-efficient home to apply geometric principles and study heat transfer (Goldstein et al., 2017; Kelley et al., 2020; Knowles et al., 2016). These experiences promote interdisciplinary synergy by requiring students to apply disciplinary knowledge to make informed design decisions. The engineering design process thus serves as a powerful integrator of STEM disciplines, reinforcing crosscutting concepts and making content more transferable (National Research Council, 2012; see also Kelley & Knowles, 2016; Nadelson & Seifert, 2017; Tank et al., 2018). In these settings, context not only motivates learning but also provides a structure for content integration, offering pathways for students to transfer and apply knowledge across domains (Moore et al., 2020).

However, not all contexts equally support STEM learning. If the scenario is too vague, too complex, or insufficiently scaffolded, students may become distracted by extraneous details, lose sight of the disciplinary learning goals, or fail to transfer knowledge (Glen et al., 2015; Goldstone & Sakamoto, 2003; Kelley & Sung, 2017; Shanta & Wells, 2022). This phenomenon—known as contextual overshadowing—occurs when students are captivated by the story but unclear on what concepts they are supposed to learn (Berland, 2013). Educators must therefore balance compelling, authentic scenarios with clear pathways to content understanding.

Practical challenges further complicate the implementation of authentic, context-rich learning experiences. These include limited classroom resources, time constraints, and strict assessment schedules (National Academy of Engineering & National Research Council, 2009). Moreover, the open-ended nature of authentic contexts—where learning may follow unpredictable or serendipitous trajectories—can make it difficult to ensure that students achieve intended disciplinary outcomes (Bartholomew, 2017; Panke, 2019; Zhang et al., 2022).

Despite these concerns, research consistently shows that authentic contexts improve student motivation and engagement. In one study, Kostøl and Remmen (2022) examined a high school unit framed around a real-world transportation problem. Although students knew the company did not actually require their help, the context still motivated them to reflect more deeply and engage more fully than they would have during traditional instruction. This research reinforces that realistic, meaningful contexts can increase effort, critical thinking, and perceived relevance (see also, Leak et al., 2023; Strimel, 2014). Ultimately, contexts in integrated STEM instruction are not merely decorative story backdrops. When thoughtfully constructed, they can drive meaning-making, support knowledge transfer, and motivate students to persist through complex problem-solving.

2.2. Narrative Contexts and Immersive Scenarios in STEM Learning

The use of narrative has gained increasing attention in STEM education as a way to frame learning experiences that are coherent, engaging, and personally meaningful. Narrative-based scaffolds—including immersive storylines, design challenges, and client scenarios—can support both conceptual understanding and motivation by contextualizing STEM problems within a structured sequence of events. Across domains, research has shown that narratives offer learners causal coherence, situate abstract ideas in human experience, and enhance recall by linking information to emotionally and socially relevant situations (Avraamidou & Osborne, 2009; Norris et al., 2005).

Narrative-based approaches have been used across STEM disciplines to situate problem-solving within meaningful, human-centered scenarios—offering insight into how tools like client letters can structure and motivate integrative learning. In mathematics, narrative structures have been used to reframe textbooks as “curricular stories”, in which mathematical challenges emerge as part of unfolding plotlines that invite student problem-solving (Dietiker, 2013). In engineering and problem-based learning, story-like cases and character-driven problems serve as cognitive scaffolds, helping learners transfer knowledge to new situations (Jonassen & Hernandez-Serrano, 2002). In a cross between both mathematics and engineering, model-eliciting activities (MEAs) have been used to connect learned content to real-world applications by framing problem-solving tasks around the needs of a fictional client (Lesh & Doerr, 2003; Moore, 2008). In MEAs, students generate solutions by considering how their work meets the client’s stated needs, which are designed to be “plausible, realistic, and compelling” (Brady et al., 2018, p. 85). This framing can increase students’ personal investment and deepen their engagement with the content. Moreover, when conducted in collaborative team settings, these scenarios can prompt productive argumentation and strengthen students’ justification of their design decisions (Brady et al., 2018). Such narrative contexts make STEM challenges more authentic and personally meaningful by humanizing content, while also structuring the learning experience in ways that mirror how students naturally make sense of problems—through characters, needs, and evolving solutions.

Narrative framing has proven beneficial even in early STEM education. Research shows that story-based STEM design challenges improve young learners’ engagement and agency by embedding tasks in personally meaningful, character-driven scenarios (Zhou & Yang, 2024). These narratives provide accessible entry points for learners, enhance their sense of purpose, and support disciplinary thinking through a relatable and immersive format.

Narrative also plays a key role in curriculum design literature. The storyline instructional model, for example, organizes learning around a driving question or problem that unfolds over time, with each activity functioning as a logical episode in an overarching narrative (Reiser et al., 2021). This approach supports coherence, agency, and sense-making, helping students see not just what they are learning but why it matters. Similarly, immersive education design principles suggest that learning becomes more engaging and meaningful when it unfolds as a “believable journey” in which students play central, decision-making roles (Brunetti et al., 2024). Core elements such as dramatic structure, motivational triggers, and the involvement of self align closely with narrative frameworks, highlighting the emotional and cognitive benefits of embedding students in a developing story.

Taken together, these studies suggest that narrative-based scaffolds—including client letters—can function as immersive, story-driven devices that provide structure, relevance, and emotional engagement in integrated STEM learning. The current study extends this perspective by examining how client letters operate as narrative tools that guide students through problem-solving while fostering synergy across disciplines.

2.3. Instructional Strategies That Leverage Narrative and Design-Based Contexts

Narrative strategies are most effective when embedded in student-centered instructional approaches that emphasize agency, iteration, and meaning making. STEM integration curricula often rely on pedagogies such as design-based learning, which position students as active constructors of knowledge. These approaches foster deeper conceptual understanding by requiring students to identify and apply disciplinary ideas in the context of authentic challenges (Han & Kelley, 2022; Kelley & Sung, 2017). However, participation in design or project-based learning alone does not ensure that students will grasp or transfer core disciplinary concepts. Without appropriate scaffolding, learners may complete tasks without understanding the underlying content (Moore et al., 2020).

Thus, student-centered strategies must also include tools that link context and content—tools like storylines, modeling prompts, and client letters. These scaffolds structure the learning process by clarifying the problem, introducing constraints, and guiding iterative refinement (Prince & Felder, 2006; Reiser et al., 2021). Instructional coherence can be further supported through problem-centered narratives that evolve over time and explicitly connect content to real-world applications (Leak et al., 2023).

Evidence-based reasoning is another critical dimension of student-centered instruction. When learners are expected to justify design decisions with data or observations, they develop the ability to synthesize knowledge and apply it in practice (Siverling et al., 2019). This practice is often facilitated by client scenarios that request evidence-based recommendations or updates, thereby reinforcing disciplinary thinking within the narrative arc.

Taken together, these strategies reinforce the value of carefully crafted, contextually rich instructional tools that help students navigate complex design challenges while building disciplinary knowledge. In this way, client letters emerge as pedagogical structures that support both content learning and student agency—especially when integrated with narrative and design-based learning.

3. Theoretical Framework

To meaningfully engage students in STEM integration, particularly in engineering design challenges, instructional approaches must move beyond surface-level activities and provide compelling contexts that situate students as active problem-solvers. One promising avenue for achieving this is through the use of immersive narratives that ground students’ work in authentic, emotionally resonant scenarios. In our study, the concept of immersive education (Brunetti et al., 2024) serves as a theoretical framework for understanding the use of client letters to build context in STEM-integrated curricula. We argue that client letters function not merely as instructional tools but as narrative devices that immerse students in a believable and consequential storyline. The following section articulates key principles of immersive education and examines how they align with the structure and purpose of engineering design-based (EDB) STEM integration.

3.1. Immersive Education

Approaches to immersive, context-rich learning have deep roots in progressive educational theory, drawing from Dewey’s emphasis on experiential learning (Dewey, 1938), Bruner’s exploration of narrative modes of knowing (Bruner, 1986), and Egan’s work on teaching as storytelling (Egan, 1986). Our study builds upon this pedagogical lineage through the contemporary lens of immersive education (Brunetti et al., 2024), which offers a concrete framework for narrative-driven engagement. Immersive education is a framework designed to help entire schools and classrooms craft deeply engaging learning experiences, in which all personnel and students participate as active contributors to a larger, unfolding narrative—much like a living history museum (Brunetti et al., 2024). In the context of engineering design and STEM integration curricula, we are particularly interested in how the framework leverages storytelling and the interdependence of teachers and students to drive the narrative forward, thereby generating a purposeful need for learning. Brunetti et al. (2024) define immersive education as strategies that facilitate learning through interaction with a narrative in which students play a central, active role. In other words, the learning experience is framed as a “rich and believable journey” that students engage in “as if it was actually true” (p. 2). Key principles of this approach include providing a dramatic storyline, a sense of realism, and meaningful roles for learners through involvement of the self and continuous engagement. The crucial element is that every learning activity is embedded in a narrative context that gives it purpose.

Table 1. The four pillars of immersive education (Brunetti et al., 2024).

Pillar	Description
Motivational Trigger	Immersive Education serves as a motivation trigger by embedding learning activities within a narrative that provides clear and immediate purpose—such as helping a character or solving a problem—which supports both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation through agency, choice, and emotional relevance.
Dramatic Structure	Each immersive experience follows a compelling narrative arc, where events unfold logically and meaningfully, using story elements (like inciting incidents, conflict, and resolution) to engage students cognitively and emotionally while positioning them as protagonists in the unfolding story.
Involvement of the Self	Learning is enhanced through personal involvement: students are not merely observers but central actors in the narrative, and the experience is designed to activate the Self-Reference Effect through embodied participation, personalization, and emotional connection.
Continuous Engagement	Immersive Education maintains continuous engagement by varying tasks, involving co-construction of the story, and stimulating behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement through rich, multifaceted activities that allow all learners to participate meaningfully.

provides more detailed definitions of these strategies. This design serves as a motivation trigger—students have a concrete reason to participate (e.g., helping a character or solving a mystery in the story), which boosts both extrinsic motivation (an external goal to work toward) and intrinsic motivation (the enjoyment of the activity itself). By justifying tasks through the narrative (for example, “a client is asking for your help to solve X”), immersive education offers “very different, concrete and straightforward extrinsic motivations that make sense in the context immediately surrounding the participants” (p. 5). At the same time, students are given freedom in how to respond, which fosters interest and a sense of ownership.

Immersive learning experiences often invite students to become co-creators (or protagonists) of the narrative, meaning their decisions and ideas can influence how the story unfolds (Brunetti et al., 2024). This co-creation element keeps students continuously engaged: to see what happens next in the story, they must persist through challenges and contribute ideas, artifacts, or other responses to the challenge. The narrative arc itself is carefully designed to include exciting “incidents” and challenges (e.g., an urgent problem introduced by a character) that spark curiosity, suspense, and emotional investment. Meanwhile, personal involvement is maximized: what is happening in the story is happening to the students (they are likely problem-solvers in the scenario), which heightens their attention and commitment.

Immersive education leverages the Self-Reference Effect (Brunetti et al., 2024) by giving learners a role and agency in the story. For example, students might receive a letter from another character in the story that makes them the protagonists responsible for developing a solution—a technique that instills a sense of responsibility and empowerment. As Brunetti et al. (2024) note, “when the participants feel that what is happening is about themselves, they are much more willing to face difficulties, show initiative, and be creative” (p. 7). In sum, the immersive approach creates an engaging learning environment where motivation is high and students are emotionally and cognitively invested.

3.2. Engineering Design-Based STEM Integration

Engineering design offers a particularly rich foundation for immersive and integrated STEM learning. It inherently involves students in solving authentic problems, applying knowledge from multiple disciplines, and engaging in iterative design processes that mirror the work of professional engineers (Moore et al., 2018; Sheppard et al., 2008). These qualities make engineering a natural context for synergy between STEM disciplines and a compelling platform for contextualized, purpose-driven instruction.

To better understand what high-quality EDB STEM integration entails, we draw on two complementary frameworks that conceptualize the key components of integrated, design-focused instruction. First, the Framework for Quality K-12 Engineering Education (Moore et al., 2014) identifies the essential dimensions of engineering learning, including the process of design, application of STEM content, engineering thinking, ethical considerations, teamwork, and communication. These dimensions emphasize both the practices of engineering and the broader competencies students must develop to engage meaningfully in complex, real-world problem-solving.

Building on this foundation, the STEM Integration Framework (Guzey & Moore, 2017) offers a conceptual model for an integrated STEM curriculum that uses engineering design as the central organizer. The framework identifies nine core elements as seen in

Table 2. Overview of STEM Integration Framework tied in with the indicators of the Framework for Quality K-12 Engineering Education.

STEM Integration Framework Elements (Framework for Quality K-12 Engineering Education indicators) *	Description
Motivating and Engaging Context (Issues Solutions & Impacts, Conceptions of Engineers & Engineering)	Criteria help evaluate motivating and engaging context based on its connectedness to students and the real-world
An Engineering Design Challenge (Process of Design, Engineering Thinking, Conceptions of Engineers & Engineering, Ethics)	Criteria help evaluate the design challenge based on how the design challenge engages students and enhances the goals of the curriculum
Integration of Science Content and Integration of Mathematics Content (Science Engineering & Mathematics Content, Engineering Tools) **	Criteria help evaluate the integration of mathematics or science content based on the content’s alignment with education standards, its integration of grade-level concepts, and its explicit use of content-specific skills
Instructional Strategies	Criteria help evaluate instructional strategies that emphasize student-centered learning and activities, incorporate evidence-based reasoning, and explicitly connect content and context to help students understand why they are learning what they are learning
Teamwork (Teamwork)	Criteria help evaluate teamwork based on the inclusion of opportunities for students to collaborate and the experience of each team member
Communication (Communication related to Engineering)	Criteria help evaluate the content, the mode, and the method of communication
Organization	Criteria help evaluate the cohesiveness of the curriculum
Performance and Formative Assessment	Criteria help evaluate the purpose and method of assessment

* STEM Integration Framework elements are from (Guzey & Moore, 2017); Framework for Quality K-12 Engineering Education indicators are from (Moore et al., 2014); ** The integrated content can go beyond science, engineering, and mathematics—the original tool was made for science-based curriculum with the intent of integrating engineering and relevant mathematics.

that support disciplinary integration, student engagement, and purposeful instruction. Each element reflects an intentional effort to connect learned content with real-world contexts in ways that are meaningful and engaging for students. For example, the framework emphasizes that a well-designed context is not just realistic but also emotionally resonant and connected to students’ experiences and interests—an idea that parallels the immersive education framework’s focus on narrative relevance and self-involvement (Brunetti et al., 2024). Similarly, the emphasis on student-centered strategies aligns with immersive education’s call for learner agency and co-construction of the learning journey.

Taken together, these frameworks highlight the pedagogical importance of context, design, and integration in STEM instruction. In this study, we treat engineering design-based STEM integration not only as a curricular approach, but as a conceptual bridge between immersive education and classroom practice. By aligning the principles of immersive education with the structural elements of the STEM Integration Framework, we consider how client letters can function as narrative devices that bring coherence, engagement, and authenticity to integrated learning experiences.

3.3. Engineering Design-Based STEM Integration as a Form of Immersive Education

Clients play an important role in the experience-based metaphors that define EDB STEM integration curricula. Immersing students in the reality of engineering problems deepens their understanding of STEM content and its purpose (Brown et al., 1989). As shown, engineering serves as an ideal context for STEM integration, because it requires the application of scientific and mathematical principles to solve complex, real-world challenges (Sheppard et al., 2008). These challenges, often framed by the needs of a client or end user, present students with open-ended problems that demand analysis, iteration, and decision-making. Engineering, by positioning students within authentic problem-solving scenarios, offers a meaningful context for engaging with STEM concepts—not as isolated bits of knowledge, but as tools for addressing real and relevant challenges (Moore et al., 2018). Traditional STEM instruction often separates concept learning from application, resulting in artificial, overly simplified problems (Kanter, 2010; Kolodner et al., 2003). In contrast, when students are immersed in engineering contexts, concepts emerge naturally within the problem-solving process, reinforcing their relevance. Effective instruction scaffolds this experience, guiding students to construct explanations based on their designs and data, ensuring they not only grasp STEM content but also see its real-world utility (Moore et al., 2018). This aligns with the dramatic structure of immersive education. Brunetti et al. (2024) suggest that the order in which the narrative unravels builds the story. They state, “Instead of organizing what happens as a function of the learning process alone (e.g., explanation followed by exercises), the elements should be concatenated in such a way that every event is the cause (or contains the seed) of the subsequent ones” (p. 6). Therefore, the role of the client in EDB STEM integration is to narrate the story so the student is invited into the journey of the learning experience and to understand at each moment what they are learning, why they are learning it, and why learning is useful.

Through the use of client letters as a narrative link between the client, teachers, and students, engineering design-based STEM integration can be framed as an immersive scenario that drives the learning experience. The evolving context of the client’s needs and responses has the power to engage students both emotionally and situationally. The client’s problem provides a compelling reason for students to apply their knowledge of STEM—and often other disciplines—as they work toward a meaningful solution. Notably, this approach reflects all four pillars of immersive education (Brunetti et al., 2024). First, client letters serve as a motivation trigger by offering students a clear and purposeful reason to engage—they are being asked to help solve a problem that matters to someone else. Second, they support dramatic structure by introducing information, constraints, and challenges at strategic moments, often through just-in-time updates that advance the narrative and sustain curiosity. Third, client letters promote the involvement of the self by placing students in central, agentic roles—students are not just completing tasks but making decisions that influence how the story unfolds. Finally, they foster continuous engagement by embedding multiple interactions and varied forms of participation across the learning experience, each contributing to a cohesive, evolving storyline. Framing client letters through the lens of immersive education adds conceptual depth to what is often described as a “motivating and engaging context” in STEM integration literature (Moore et al., 2020), and aligns with key indicators of quality engineering education, including authentic problems, design processes, teamwork, and communication (Guzey & Moore, 2017; Moore et al., 2014).

Drawing on immersive education as a theoretical lens, we consider client letters as both instructional prompts and narrative tools capable of anchoring students in meaningful learning environments. The immersive potential of a well-crafted client letter lies in its ability to position students as active problem-solvers within a realistic scenario—mirroring the role of the learner as a central character in a larger unfolding story. This perspective offers a useful lens for interpreting the function of client letters—not simply as instructional prompts, but also as narrative devices that construct immersive, interdisciplinary learning experiences that promote both STEM integration and student engagement.

4. Materials and Methods

This study examines how client letters embedded within EDB STEM integration curricular units function as pedagogical tools to structure and support interdisciplinary learning. To do so, we used qualitative document analysis (Morgan, 2022) to examine a collection of client letters from EDB STEM units that are freely available for K-12 classroom use. Our goal was to understand how client letters contribute to immersive, problem-based learning by analyzing their content, structure, and alignment with engineering design processes and immersive education elements. The methods described below detail the process of data selection, coding, and analysis.

4.1. Data Selection

Curricular units were identified through an internet search for free or open-access K-12 EBD STEM Integration curriculum that included the use of client letters, a STEM project, and could be implemented in the classroom. This search identified twenty-seven units. Fifteen units out of the twenty-seven had been closely examined by the research team in prior client letter research (McDonnell et al., 2025). Of those fifteen units, researchers selected six units that were a representative sample to use in this study; we did not select all of them so that no one curricular project overly influenced our results. The six were chosen for the following reasons: (1) each unit included three or more client letters, (2) they represented coverage across the K-12 grade bands (three elementary and three secondary), and (3) they reflected variation in content areas relevant to STEM integration. These six units were combined with the twelve new units identified through the search to complete the data set for this study. In all, we identified 18 curricular units for this study.

Table 3. K-12 STEM integration curricular units with client letters used for this study.

Project	Curricular Unit	Grade Level	Number of Client Letters
PictureSTEM	Designing Paper Baskets	K	3
	Designing Hamster Habitats	1	3
	Designing Toy Box Organizers	2	4
INSPIRE	Design an Amusement Park Roller Coaster	3–5	2
Engineering Adventures	Liftoff: Engineering Rockets and Rovers	3–5	8
	Hop to It: Safe Removal of Invasive Species	3–5	6
	Bubble Bonanza: Engineering Bubble Wands	3–5	9
	Go Green: Engineering Recycled Racers	3–5	9
	Light Up the Night: An Electrical Engineering Challenge	3–5	10
	Shake Things Up: Engineering Earthquake-Resistant Buildings	3–5	9
	Slippery Slope: Engineering an Avalanche Protection System	3–5	8
SCALE K-12	Who Let the Dogs Out?	3	6
	Stay Cool	3–5	6
	What’s in the Box?	6–12	6
	Trekking Through the Periodic Table	8–10	4
	CSI: Carbon Sink Investigation	9–12	5
	Stressed Out!	9–12	5
	You Light Up My Life!	9–12	4

provides a list of the units, grade level, and number of client letters.

4.2. Identification of Client Letters

We, the researcher authors of this paper, reviewed the curricular units for each of the embedded client letters. At the screening level, we defined client letters as any form of communication simulating a conversation or exchange of ideas between the students. We identified client letters by examining both their content and their reference titles within the curricular unit. This included many different curricular unit reference titles such as “Client Letter”, “Client Memo”, “Client Response”, “Email from [client]”, “Message From [client]”, or “Letter From the [Client]”. As a document form, client letters manifested as an actual letter, email, memo, mission brief, journal log, or other type of communication. In all, 107 client letters were identified. Each client letter was individually extracted from the STEM integration curricular unit and stored digitally. No modifications or manipulations were made to the client letters.

4.3. Coding and Thematic Analysis

The analysis of the client letters was iterative and involved several steps, with each step aligned with Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis method (which is embedded within the Morgan [2022] document analysis) and analyzed the data through multiple rounds of coding using the lens of the engineering design-based STEM integration framework and immersive education. Coding analysis started with an analysis at the sentence level and then moved to an analysis at the paragraph level. Coding began with all of us, the six researcher authors of this paper, coding the same letters and coming to consensus on what the terms meant and how to apply them to the letters. Then, due to the large number of total letters, the coding tasks were divided so that two researchers coded each letter. After the pair of researchers coded a letter, they discussed the coding of the letter, reconciled discrepancies, and, if needed, recoded to consensus. Following each round of coding, there was a discussion of coding with the larger group for consistency of coding across letters and two of the six researchers reviewed the codes for all 107 client letters.

Through the rounds of coding the codebook was reorganized and refined. For the initial round of coding, researchers selected a small subset of letters in the units familiar to the research team and coded them based on a codebook from a pilot study on client letters (McDonnell et al., 2025). Following this initial round of coding, the research team discussed the application of this codebook to the letters and made slight modifications to the codebook, eliminating some of the original codes and adding new ones. We then applied the revised codes to a new set of units. After multiple iterations, the research team achieved full alignment on a final set of codes, detailed in

Table 4. Final codebook.

Client Letter Codes		Brief Description of Code
A	Client name(s)	Person, company, organization, (optional) job titles or job purpose with simple org chart
B	Client’s product/service/market/industry/client background	General information about the client and their universe—which can be bigger than the product that they want designed—usually background context to understand more about the client
C	End user(s)	Description of end user, implied end user, reference to specific end user, client’s customer
D	Underlying need	What is motivating the need for a solution? Why is the need for a solution important?
E	Urgency	Why now?
F	Criteria/competing criteria	Represent needs/wants that will be used to judge the solution
G	Constraints/competing constraints	Represent requirements that if the solution does not meet then it is not viable
H	Ideation	Generate ideas—can be solution(design)-related or even pre-solution related [before a direction for the design has been figured out]
I	Design statement	“I need you to design X”, there can be more than one per unit if the challenge evolves
J	Test	“Test it”, “Evaluate your design”, try with the intent to evaluate
K	Evidence-Based Reasoning	Motivation to use evidence to support recommendation or use logic to validate recommendation [justification for choices]
L	Iteration	Multiple designs, do not get stuck on one design, improve a design, there are multiple steps in design which includes looking back at other steps
M	Solution	Always talked about after the design, recommended design, i.e., prototype, model
N	Exit from iteration cycle/design cycle	Statement to let students know they are finished
O	Solution impact on end user	This is only when the solution is already defined
P	Feedback from client to engineers/students	Thanks, kudos, customers were happy because X
Q	Client request for response from engineers/students	Please send me X, share your Y
R	Learned content	Foreshadowing of concepts to be learned OR looking back at what has been learned, try with the intent to learn about it
S	Student personas	Calling the students engineers, or other roles
T	Careers	Must include a description of the STEM career or type of engineering, or a description of engineering in general

. Each of the letters was then recoded with the final agreed-upon codebook.

4.4. Categories from Client Letter Coding

Once the coding of the letters was completed, researchers analyzed patterns in the combinations of codes to establish categories within each client letter. Analysis of the coded letters led to the identification of six larger categories within individual client letters: problem framing, problem scoping, design detailing, concluding the project, knowledge building, and identity building. The first four of these categories relate to the engineering design process within the STEM integration learning activity. Knowledge building was an additional category that emerged from the analysis of patterns in the client letters. Figure 1 provides descriptions of the categories and details for the codes from Table 4 that primarily relate to each of the categories. Whereas, identity building is more related to the immersive experience and will be discussed with the findings related to the pillars of immersive education.

These categories were then applied to each of the client letters. Figure 2 and Figure 3 show examples of how the categories were applied to each of the letters. Analysis of each letter led to rich descriptions of the categories that are detailed in the results.

4.5. Immersive Education Analysis

Once the categories were agreed upon, researchers analyzed the overall narrative created by the client letters through the lens of immersive education elements. While the combination of categories can be unique to each client letter, immersive elements (Brunetti et al., 2024) are incorporated across the client letters. Across the letters, features of the client letters support and connect immersive elements described in the framework section of this paper (refer to Table 1 for detailed definitions).

Through this multi-layered analysis, we examined how client letters function as narrative devices that support both engineering design-based learning and immersive engagement. Our coding process revealed recurring content features (e.g., problem-framing, design detailing) and thematic patterns that aligned with larger design and motivational elements of immersive education. These categories and features allowed us to explore not only the structural components of the letters but also their pedagogical roles in shaping the student experience. In the next section, we present findings that illustrate how client letters function as narrative scaffolds—structuring learning, sustaining engagement, and supporting disciplinary synergy across integrated STEM instruction.

5. Results

The results presented in this section illustrate how client letter narratives function as pedagogical tools to structure and support interdisciplinary learning in EDB STEM integration contexts. Specifically, we describe how they synergize elements of the learning experience and construct an immersive storyline for the purpose of meaningful student engagement. In this study, we explored the research question: How do client letters serve to synergize knowledge in immersive engineering design-based STEM integration curricula? We use the term synergize to describe an intentional connection. Our findings suggest client letter narratives can be used to synergize elements of the learning experience and support a narrative arc intended to move a storyline beyond static content to one in which the student is the protagonist. These findings are presented in the following sections. When appropriate, the results contain aggregate information across all client letters. However, to help the reader follow and for brevity, we have chosen just a few representative examples to highlight, which allow the reader to follow the narrative within the client letters more easily.

5.1. Client Letter Narratives Synergize Elements of the Learning Experience

In this section, we discuss how the use of narrative in client letters can be used to synergize elements of the learning experience, including curricular progression and knowledge building within the unit. Our analysis suggests that client letter synergies are observed across the narratives of the letters within a unit, with each new client letter building upon the narrative in the prior letter. Within a unit, client letter narratives are specific to the context and learning of that curricular unit, which means we did not identify a typical pattern of implementation across all units. The number of client letters within a unit also varied, ranging from 2 letters to 10 letters. However, we did observe that the client letter narratives primarily followed the engineering design process, connecting the sequence of curriculum progression through messaging around problem framing, problem scoping, design detailing, and concluding the project—yet with room to move between them fluidly as needed for the storyline. We also observed a pattern of knowledge building that was synergized across client letter narratives, making connections between the knowledge needed from the content of the unit (e.g., technical/STEM knowledge) as well as contextual knowledge from the problem (e.g., client needs, environmental constraints, etc.). The use of messaging in client letter narratives provides the opportunity to synergize elements of the learning process. We saw that the engineering design categories plus the knowledge building within the client letters provided messages to students about their learning experiences. We have termed these categories “messaging themes”. Figure 4 represents a cross-section of different units chosen to exemplify the different ways that messaging themes (problem framing, problem scoping, design detailing, concluding the project, and knowledge building) were applied to the client letter narratives. Our discussion of the messaging themes will first include the client letter narratives that synergize curriculum flow through the engineering design process followed by a separate discussion of the use of client letter narratives to synergize knowledge building within the unit.

5.1.1. Client Letter Narratives Connect Curricular Progression Through the Application of the Engineering Design Process

Client letter narratives can be used to drive curricular progression through the engineering design process. Client letter narratives incorporate one or more messaging themes as seen in Figure 4. These themes relate to the engineering design process and, when connected through client letter narratives, define the sequence of curriculum progression. Here we will discuss the use of problem framing, problem scoping, design detailing, and concluding the project as messaging themes within client letter narratives, saving the discussion of knowledge building for the next section.

Problem Framing

Problem framing describes the portion of the client letter narrative that initiates the client interaction and provides information in support of defining the context of the problem. In setting the context of the problem, the problem-framing narrative establishes a real-world scenario in which students find possible connections to the problem and its importance. Typically, the first narrative to be included in a client letter, the problem-framing narrative includes answers to questions like: Who is the client? Who is the end user/who benefits by having this problem resolved? What is the underlying need that will be addressed by solving this problem? Why is it important to the client or the end user that this problem be resolved? Why does this problem need to be resolved now? For example, in Picture STEM: Designing Hamster Habitats (henceforth called “Hamster Habitats”) Client Letter 1, the client, Perri, is presented as the owner of a pet store called Perri’s Pet Palace. The end user is established when Perri mentions that customers like the hamster habitat cages carried by the store. The underlying need is conveyed when Perri shares the fact that customers “have been asking for a way to expand the habitat cages”. Also, in SCALE K-12: You Light Up My Life (henceforth designated “Light Up My Life”) Client Letter 1, the problem-framing theme is demonstrated by establishing the context of a high-school dance committee that needs help designing the decorations for the end-of-year dance. Additionally, the underlying need is established when Gina Dancer, the client, acknowledges a need for help creating light displays that will correspond to the mood of the music. The end user is established when Gina asks the engineers to interview high school students for their preference in dance lighting. In both cases, as in the other problem framing letters, the use of problem framing allows the client letter narrative to establish the broader context through which the engineering design process will support addressing an underlying need or want.

Problem Scoping

Problem scoping describes the portion of the client letter narrative that broadly defines the problem to be solved. In broadly defining the problem, the problem-scoping narrative provides information that establishes the characteristics and boundaries, known as criteria and constraints, that help focus the problem solution. The criteria and constraints also provide a means of determining whether a problem solution is successful. The problem-scoping narrative can be embedded in or come after the problem-framing narrative. As such, the problem-scoping narrative builds upon the information provided by the problem-framing narrative by adding contextual detail related to defining the criteria and constraints, foreshadowing knowledge building (both new and prior) related to the solution, and asking questions that test the boundaries of the solution space. For example, in Hamster Habitats Client Letter 1, the problem-scoping theme is communicated in the form of criteria and constraints; Perri shares the need for the expansion to provide “more room [for hamsters] to run and explore to be happy and healthy”. In Hamster Habitats Client Letter 2, the problem-scoping theme is further demonstrated by guiding the solution space; Perri shares the need for the expansion to include “an exercise trail”. And, in Engineering Adventures: A Slippery Slope: Engineering an Avalanche Protection System (henceforth called “Avalanche Protection”) Client Letter 1, problem scoping was used to introduce the end user, a park ranger in the local community, and his job of monitoring the weather. Through this foundation, students gain an understanding of the need for a tower, which introduces the first design challenge. In Avalanche Protection Client Letter 4, another mini-design challenge is introduced, and problem scoping is used to focus the students on the specific task they will be working on in this lesson, “He told us it can be helpful to focus on one part of an avalanche before taking on the full avalanche”. By adding information to the underlying need, the problem-scoping letters provide details that begin to move the students into solving the problem, rather than just learning about the problem. This is conducted by narrating why this problem needs an engineering solution rather than a different sort of solution (for example, a policy solution). Simply put, the use of problem framing in client letter narratives provides the boundaries of the solution space.

Design Detailing

Design detailing describes the portion of the client letter narrative that provides a clear design statement. Typically following the problem-framing and problem-scoping narratives, the design-detailing narrative provides a design statement and clarifies the criteria and constraints of the design. Additionally, the design-detailing narrative can encourage the use of engineering design strategies related to iterative design, evidence-based reasoning, and communicating a design solution. Often knowledge building developed throughout the client letter narratives is connected to the design-detailing narrative. For example, In Light Up My Life Client Letter 2, design detailing is applied in multiple ways. First, the narrative clarifies criteria and constraints such as the requirement that “all three programs should involve different (1) changes in color and (2) changes in luminosity”. Next, the narrative supports iterative design by encouraging students to “continue to develop your design” and “identifying what a final design” needs; this implies that there are other designs before the final design. Finally, the narrative establishes requirements for presenting their prototype by providing a “sheet of foam board on which to arrange the prototype visually”. In Avalanche Protection Client Letter 6, the design detailing focuses on the main design challenge, designing an avalanche protection system. After multiple mini-design challenges to learn more about the features of an avalanche protection system, the students or “engineers” have to come up with a design. Additional criteria and constraints were also introduced in this letter, such as the need to think about cost and height, as it cannot mess up the mountain views, specifically noting it must be “less than 5 in. tall on the model”. As seen in these examples, the use of design detailing allows the client letter narrative to provide a clear design statement and clarify the design parameters of the solution.

Concluding the Project

Concluding the project describes the portion of the client letter narrative that signals the end of the client interaction and describes the impact of the design solution. Typically, the last narrative to be included in a client letter, a concluding-the-project narrative celebrates student achievement, acknowledges the solution recommendation, communicates the value of the solution to the end user, connects the solution to the knowledge learned, and acknowledges the end of the project. In Light Up My Life Client Letter 4, concluding the project is exemplified when Gina Dancer, the client, thanks the student engineers and shares the impact of the recommended design solution on the end user; Gina communicates that the “designs you submitted are creative and exciting, and they will enliven our end-of-year dance”. In this way, Gina has conveyed that the student engineers have completed their project. Avalanche Protection Client Letter 8 is the final letter in the unit and focuses primarily on concluding the project. Communication is the main point of this letter. It opens up with a celebration of the students’ work, acknowledging that they “have worked hard to engineer an avalanche protection system”. The letter acknowledges that a final solution has been made because the students are asked to present their design to the village. The students must reflect and discuss everything they have completed for the project. In this presentation, the students are asked to reflect on their decisions, what they learned, and any iterations or design improvements. This reinforces the knowledge learned throughout the unit. The letter ends with “Hasta luego…—that’s see you later in Spanish!” as the final line from India and Jacob, the students’ first client for this project. In this way, India and Jacob convey that the student engineers have concluded their project. The use of concluding the project allows the client letter narrative to end the client interaction, provide students with a sense of closure, and allow students to feel a sense of satisfaction for all of the work they have accomplished.

5.1.2. Client Letter Narratives Synergize Knowledge Building Within the Unit

Knowledge building describes the portion of the client letter narrative that encourages or supports learning about the problem to be solved. Knowledge-building narratives include, but are not limited to, the specific content learning objectives of the unit. Within an EDB STEM integration curricular unit, knowledge building is synergized across most, if not all, of the client letter narratives. As such, knowledge building is often embedded with other client letter message themes. However, in more complicated contexts, knowledge building can exist as the full narrative of a client letter. The use of knowledge building across client letter narratives supports different types of learning required to progress through the engineering design process: knowledge building in service of the problem and knowledge building in service of the solution. These are described here:

Knowledge building in service of the problem: This type of knowledge building supports learning about the context of the problem and understanding the information used to frame the problem, such as learning about what engineers do, learning about a specific career or process that helps to be able to understand the problem. Knowledge shared through problem framing is an example of knowledge building in service of the problem.

Knowledge building in service of the solution: This type of knowledge building supports learning required to effectively design a solution to a problem. In addition to discipline specific learning objectives, this type of learning includes knowledge building related to the engineering design process and other learning helpful to designing the solution (i.e., coding, microelectronics, mill working, 3-D printing). Knowledge shared through problem scoping and design detailing are examples of knowledge building in service of the solution. Knowledge-building narratives are often embedded with other client letter message themes. However, in more complicated contexts, knowledge building can exist as the full narrative of a client letter.

The application of messaging themes to support knowledge building across different types of learning illustrates how knowledge is logically introduced and scaffolded through client letters, allowing for meaningful integration through the engineering design process. For example, in Hamster Habitats, knowledge building is synergized across all three client letters. In Client Letter 1, knowledge building in service of the problem is established through the rich description of the context that supports the need for students to build their knowledge about the problem early in the engineering design process. The letters are written from the point of view of the client and as such establish the client as Perri Martinez, Owner of Perri’s Pet Palace. Further knowledge building in service of the problem occurs by establishing the underlying need and the motivation for finding a solution in Client Letter 1 when Perri shares that customers “have been asking for a way to expand the habitat”. Knowledge building in service of the solution is established in three different ways across the Hamster Habitats unit. First, students progress through the engineering design process with the intentional order of the messaging themes (i.e., problem framing, problem scoping, and design detailing). Next, the knowledge building related to discipline-specific learning objectives is foreshadowed, as in Client Letter 1 where the reference to “expand the habitat cage” suggests a need to understand hamster environments and the current shape of the cage design. Finally, other learning helpful to designing the solution (i.e., writing directions) is foreshadowed in Client 2 when Perri shares, “Please send me a set of directions for how your hamster will travel through your exercise trail”. Client letter narratives in Hamster Habitats synthesize knowledge by using messaging themes to foreshadow, explicitly identify, and reinforce different types of knowledge.

Knowledge building is also synergized across all four client letters in Light Up My Life. In Light Up My Life, knowledge building in service of the problem is established through the rich description of the context. The letters are written from the point of view of the client and as such establish the client as Gina Dancer, Head of the High School Dance Committee of Anytown High School. Further knowledge building in service of the problem occurs in Client Letter 1 by establishing the underlying need and the motivation for finding a solution when Gina shares, “We are contacting you to enlist your help to design the decorations for the end of the year dance”. This knowledge is reinforced in Client Letter 2 when Gina shares, “Remember the purpose… is to promote enjoyment and create a festive atmosphere”. Knowledge building in service of the solution is established in three different ways. First, students progress through the engineering design process through the intentional order of the messaging themes (i.e., problem framing, problem scoping, and design detailing). Next, the careful placement of a knowledge-building message in Client Letter 3, provides specific knowledge related to Weber’s Law, a content learning objective, that will help students design their solution. Gina Dancer connects Weber’s Law to the solution by sharing, “This makes me think that in order to make the changes in LED strip brightness look smooth and even, we first have to figure out how we perceive the change. Would you please investigate?” Finally, other learning helpful to designing the solution (i.e., coding) is foreshadowed in Client Letter 1 thorough problem scoping and clarified in Client Letter 2 through design detailing, where Gina reinforces the need for coding to control the transition of the light sequences. Client letter narratives in Light Up My Life synthesize knowledge by using messaging themes to foreshadow, explicitly identify, and reinforce different types of knowledge.

Organized in a way that supports progression through the engineering design process, client letter narratives synthesize knowledge building throughout the curricular unit. Client letter narratives synthesize knowledge by using messaging themes to foreshadow, explicitly identify, and reinforce different types of knowledge.

5.1.3. Summary: Client Letter Narratives Synergize Elements of the Learning Experience

Client letter narratives synergize elements of the learning experience by applying the engineering design process to logically structure the narrative arc, driving the curriculum progression through the integration of messaging themes. Anchoring the curricular unit with knowledge building that is synergized across all client letters, client letter narratives organize knowledge building through the use of problem-framing, problem-scoping, design-detailing, and concluding-the-project messaging that supports the context through which engineering design is being applied. In this way client letter narratives connect different elements of the learning experience, establishing a purposeful need for learning.

5.2. Client Letter Narratives Synergize Context in an Immersive Storyline

In this section, we discuss the support for immersive education provided through client letter narratives. Since immersive elements are incorporated across the client letters, we analyzed the client letters in aggregate. In doing so, we found how features of the client letters support and connect immersive education pillars of dramatic structure, motivation trigger, involvement of the self, and continuous engagement. Figure 5 provides an overview of our findings related to how the pillars of immersive education correspond to the client letter narrative features, thus generating a believable storyline and a purposeful need for learning. The following sections provide details for how each of the pillars corresponds to client letter narrative features.

5.2.1. Dramatic Structure

Dramatic structure describes the narrative arc across the client letter sequence. Client letter narratives logically structure messaging themes to create a real-world context intended to capture the interest of students, position students as critical to the problem solution, and logically connect intended learning. The real-life context begins with a rich description through problem framing and knowledge building that occurs across all client letters. The logical flow of the narrative follows the steps of the engineering design process created through the thoughtful use of problem-scoping, knowledge-building, and design-detailing messaging in a way that structures students’ navigation of the process and organizes the knowledge building required. The client letters used in Hamster Habitats use dramatic structure to place students in Perri’s Pet Palace. Within the narrative arc of the story, students understand why Perri is asking for help to redesign the hamster cages with a habitat trail, why they need to learn about shapes, and why animal environments are important. Additionally, students are provided with the design requirements that students need to “make sure… are true” for their habitat cage and exercise trail. The use of dramatic structure across client letters logically connects “conversations” with the client and drives curricular progression through the engineering design process.

5.2.2. Motivation Trigger

Motivation trigger describes the use of narrative to provide a clear and immediate purpose for learning activities. Client letters incorporate the concept of motivation trigger by connecting the narrative arc with intended learning and using client requests to motivate a response from the students. Motivation trigger is typically seen where knowledge building integrates with other messaging themes. For example, in Light Up My Life Client Letter 1, Gina Dancer asks the student engineers to interview high school students about their preference for dance lighting. In this way, Client Letter 1 not only establishes the need for investigation but connects the results of the investigation directly to the problem to be solved. In Client Letter 3, Gina Dancer ties the design goal of smooth lighting transitions to the importance of understanding how “we perceive the changes in [LED strip brightness]”. Gina then asks the students to “please investigate” the phenomena of Weber’s Law. In this way, Client Letter 3 motivates the investigation of Weber’s law by placing it on the critical path to a successful solution. As seen in this example, client letter narratives use motivation trigger to establish a clear and immediate purpose for learning activities.

5.2.3. Involvement of the Self

Involvement of the self describes the placement of students as central actors in the narrative. Client letter narratives support the concept of involvement of the self by placing the student as the overall protagonist of the narrative through the use of student/client interaction and through building an identity for the student within the narrative. The use of interaction between the client and the students takes on a form of “call and response”. We describe “call and response” as the use of narrative to make a request of the students (i.e., the “call”) that requires an artifact in return (i.e., the “response”; examples can include a prototype, a presentation, an investigation, and an idea). The “call” from the client pauses the interaction until the “response” is received from the students. Once the students “respond” to the client, the narrative moves forward. In this way, the student is given a relevant and impactful role in advancing the narrative, bearing the responsibility to respond to a client request before the narrative resumes. In Light Up My Life Client Letter 1, Gina Dancer issues the “call” for an interview; the students have to “respond” to Gina with an artifact (i.e., the results of the interview) before the narrative moves forward. In Client Letter 2, Gina begins by acknowledging student progress and provides more information so they may “continue to develop [their] design”. In Hamster Habitats Client Letter 1, Perri asks students for “ideas about how to expand the hamster habitats”. Client Letter 2 acknowledges the student’s ideas (“I really liked your ideas”) and makes a decision after receiving those ideas (“I have decided to expand the hamster habitat by adding an exercise trail”). The use of involvement of the self in client letter narratives gives the student a relevant and impactful role in advancing the narrative.

Client letter narratives also support the student as the overall protagonist through the use of student personas and career descriptions that help the student identify as an engineer or someone who was working in a particular career. Here is where, in particular, our identity-building category can be seen. Identity building consisted primarily of our initial codes for student personas (S) and careers (T), when they were employed in such a way as to help the student identify as an engineer or someone who was working in a particular career.

Student personas are established when the narrative casts the students in a particular role. Narratives that help students identify as engineers may explicitly call students engineers or may characterize their artifact as a work of engineering. In Avalanche Protection Client Letter 5, India congratulates the students for “engineering catches to stop debris from falling down a mountainside”. India then shares, “We are hoping that you engineers can design barriers to direct falling objects into different areas”. By describing the student artifact as an act of engineering and further suggesting that “you engineers” are needed for more support, the narrative places students in the context of an engineering persona.

As these examples show, client letters use of involvement of the self to place the student as the overall protagonist of the narrative through interaction with the client and through the use of student personas. As protagonists, students are critical to the “call and response” interaction with the client, bearing the responsibility to respond to a client request before the narrative arc continues. Additionally, the client letter narrative can cast the student in the role of an engineer or identify as someone who is working in a particular career. In this way, client letter narratives support involvement of the self.

5.2.4. Continuous Engagement

Continuous engagement describes the use of rich, multifaceted activities that allow for meaningful participation by all learners. Client letters support the concept of continuous engagement, by incorporating the different message themes in a way that encourages ideation, investigation, and other creative participation (i.e., design challenges, projects, and classroom activities) by the students in response to client requests. Creative participation in response to a client request makes the students the protagonists in the progression of the narrative, supporting continuous engagement from the students. For example, the client’s letters in Engineering Avalanche guide students through four different design challenges over the course of eight letters. The students are asked to build a tower, design different catches and barriers, and plan and build an avalanche protection system. The first challenge is meant to introduce students to the concept of an engineering design challenge and an engineering design process. The second and third design challenges allow students to learn about key elements required for the final design project. Each challenge serves as a springboard to the next topic, building on each other to provide the knowledge needed to navigate the unit. Questions throughout the client letters in Avalanche Protection also engaged students with the content and the activities. Questions encourage students to investigate and think more deeply about the topic. For example, to get students invested in the underlying need of the challenge, students are asked, “What makes avalanches dangerous to the villages below?” They are also provided with information and asked to reflect on that information, “Take a look at the picture we sent along. What do you notice about the shape and material these catches are made of?” The initiation of ideation also came through questions like, “Can you use the Engineering Design Process to help you imagine ways to catch objects, like a large boulder?” In this example, the student is encouraged to use what they know to think of all the ways to solve the problem. As seen in these examples, client letters use continuous engagement by providing a narrative that constantly engages students with the underlying needs of the unit and encourages creative participation by all learners in response to a client request.

5.2.5. Summary: Client Letter Narratives Synergize Context in an Immersive Storyline

Client letters use a rich narrative to create a real-world context that supports an engaging and motivating learning environment where students can be emotionally and cognitively invested in problem-solving. The rich narrative tells a story while intentionally incorporating features that align with the four pillars of immersive education: dramatic structure, motivation trigger, involvement of the self, and continuous engagement. In this way, client letters create an interdependence between the clients and the students that places the responsibility of advancing the narrative on the students. Students advance the narrative by responding to the client through ideation, investigation, and other creative participation, thereby generating a purposeful need for learning. Synergizing context in an immersive narrative places students as protagonists of a believable storyline and a purposeful need for learning.

5.3. Summary of the Results

Client letter narratives synergize elements of the learning experience and connect an immersive storyline. In this study, we explored the research question: How do client letters serve to synergize knowledge in immersive EDB STEM integration curricula? We use the term synergize to describe an intentional connection. Our findings support that client letters synergize elements of the learning experience and provide synergy across an immersive storyline. By organizing the narrative around the engineering design process—problem framing, problem scoping, design detailing, and concluding the project—client letters help support curricular progression and synergize knowledge building across a unit. Additionally, client letter narratives synergize an immersive storyline by aligning with the key pillars of immersive education: dramatic structure, motivation trigger, involvement of the self, and continuous engagement. The narrative arc of the client letter establishes a real-world context intended to capture the interest of the students, motivate learning by connecting the real-world context to learned content, involve students as protagonists through interactive “call and response” exchanges with the client, and continuously engage students through ideation, investigation, and other creative participation in response to a client request. By integrating these elements, client letter narratives effectively synergize elements of the learning experience and synergize an immersive storyline, creating a believable storyline and a purposeful need for learning.

6. Discussion

This study explored how client letters serve as pedagogical tools to structure and support interdisciplinary learning in immersive EDB STEM integration curricula. By analyzing how client letters function across multiple curriculum units, we identified their role in scaffolding knowledge, driving curricular progression, and anchoring students in meaningful, narrative-driven design challenges. We examined curricular units across a range of curricula, publishers, and settings from early elementary to secondary levels and across formal to nonformal settings. Through a multi-layered analysis, we examined the structural components of client letters and their pedagogical role in the learning experience. Our three main findings support the use of client letters as a pedagogical tool that strategically introduces and scaffolds knowledge while immersing students in a believable and consequential storyline:

• Client letter narratives drive curricular progression to structure learning through the use of messaging themes that align with the engineering design process.
• Client letter narratives logically introduce, scaffold, and synergize knowledge building throughout the unit.

Client letter narratives support an immersive approach to student learning that moves a storyline beyond static content to one in which the student is the protagonist. We will discuss each of these findings within the literature.

6.1. Client Letter Narratives Drive Curricular Progression to Structure Learning Through the Use of Messaging Themes That Align with the Engineering Design Process

Through the structure of the engineering design process, client letters utilize a common set of messaging themes to construct a cohesive storyline. Our analysis revealed that client letters embedded in K-12 immersive EDB STEM integration units consistently employed the themes of problem framing, problem scoping, design detailing, concluding the project, and knowledge building. These messaging themes supported the logical progression of the narrative arc and helped structure students’ movement through the engineering design process. For instance, in Hamster Habitats, the client letters use these messaging themes to connect student learning experiences with Perri’s need to redesign hamster cages, guiding students through the design of an exercise trail. Similarly, in Light Up My Life, client letters structure the storyline around Gina’s request for a lighting system, with messaging themes unfolding in sequence to support the development of students’ design solutions. These examples illustrate how client letters function as narrative scaffolds that guide students through interdisciplinary learning experiences. This is important because a well-crafted storyline has been shown to not only help students see the relevance of STEM, but can also support deeper learning (Guzey et al., 2016; Goldstone & Sakamoto, 2003; Leak et al., 2023). While a shared use of messaging themes might be expected among curricula developed by the same design teams, our finding is notable given that our dataset included diverse grade levels, publishers, and instructional settings. This suggests that the five themes—problem framing, problem scoping, design detailing, concluding the project, and knowledge building—are foundational elements for client letter construction across a range of EBD STEM integration contexts.

6.2. Client Letter Narratives Logically Introduce, Scaffold, and Synergize Knowledge Building Throughout the Unit

Client letter narratives seamlessly synergize knowledge building, allowing for meaningful integration throughout the engineering design process. By establishing a real-world context, these narratives connect what students are learning with why they are learning it—providing a purposeful and authentic use for the knowledge (Kirn & Benson, 2018; Strimel, 2014). In this way, client letters frame learning activities to support relevance and application. For example, in Avalanche Adventure, knowledge building is distributed across eight client letters that guide students through four distinct design challenges. Each challenge introduces new concepts while also drawing on knowledge developed in earlier phases, culminating in a final synthesis of learning in the final design project. Similarly, in Light Up My Life, the client Gina Dancer foreshadows the need for coding in Client Letter 1 and reinforces its importance in Client Letter 2, connecting students’ design work to specific technical skills. These examples illustrate how client letters can scaffold the learning process over time by strategically sequencing content and tasks. Because client letters create strong links between context, content, and real-world relevance, they function as narrative scaffolds that support conceptual development and sustained engagement (Prince & Felder, 2006; Leak et al., 2023; Reiser et al., 2021). In doing so, client letter narratives introduce and organize knowledge building across lessons and activities, serving as a central source of curricular synergy.

6.3. Client Letter Narratives Support an Immersive Curricular Approach to Student Learning That Moves a Storyline Beyond Static Content to One in Which the Student Is the Protagonist

Client letters are more than just vehicles for conveying context; they offer a structured approach to student engagement that advances a storyline through ideation, investigation, and other forms of creative participation. Rather than presenting static content, client letters frame students as protagonists within immersive, unfolding narratives. These narratives can be analyzed through the four primary pillars of immersive education: motivation trigger, dramatic structure, involvement of self, and continuous engagement (Brunetti et al., 2024).

Aligned with the motivation-trigger pillar, client letters establish a compelling reason for students to act. By connecting the real-life context of the narrative to the reason behind the intended learning, or knowledge building, client letter narratives help connect why students are learning with what they are learning, using the need for a response back to the client as motivation for that learning. For instance, some client letters pose authentic questions or requests—such as investigating perceptual phenomena or researching environmental conditions—that link directly to core disciplinary concepts. By making explicit requests of the students, referencing real end users and clients, and connecting design requirements to a real-world need, the letters serve as a narrative “call to action” that justifies the learning process and knowledge building required (Guzey et al., 2016; Leak et al., 2023; Reiser et al., 2021).

In support of dramatic structure, client letters provide a narrative arc that logically arranges the components of the story and establishes a real-world context that connects intended learning. The logical arrangement of message themes within client letters guides knowledge building in a way that scaffolds the learning. For example, each letter from Perri in Hamster Habitats builds upon knowledge shared in a prior interaction and expands upon the use of that knowledge, scaffolding the knowledge related to Perri’s design challenge. This scaffolding serves to deepen student connection to the material while supporting the knowledge building required within the context of the problem to be solved. In this way, dramatic structure is used to keep students focused on both the narrative and the learning (Kelley & Sung, 2017; Shanta & Wells, 2022).

Aligning with the pillar of involvement of the self, client letters place students as the protagonists of the narrative through the use of client–student interactions. These interactions take on the form of a “call and response”, where the client makes a request of the students that requires an artifact in return. The “call” from the client pauses the interaction until the “response” is received from the students. Once the students “respond” to the client, the narrative moves forward. By supporting student-centered learning pedagogies, client letter narratives not only assign a character (or role) to students (i.e., “engineer”), but also place student responses on the critical path of the narrative. Whether the client asks students to ideate, investigate, or design, student responses are required before the story can advance. In this way, client letters apply involvement of the self to make students the protagonist in the narrative (Brady et al., 2018; Prince & Felder, 2006; Reiser et al., 2021).

Finally, the support for continuous engagement is exemplified not only through the use of rich narrative, but also through the intentional sequencing of messaging themes in a way that encourages ideation, investigation, and other creative participation by the students in response to client requests. In Engineering Avalanche, client letters guide students through four different design challenges over the course of eight letters. The students are asked to build a tower, design different catches and barriers, and plan and build an avalanche protection system. Students are often asked to investigate and ideate on questions that require a response. Each letter in a curricular unit builds upon the last, often shifting or expanding the solution space of the problem, introducing new constraints, or providing feedback. This establishes a learning environment in which student ideas, artifacts, and other responses become central to how the story moves forward. Requests from the client for ideation, investigation, and other creative participation from the students create opportunities for continuous engagement (Brunetti et al., 2024).

Together, these immersive elements position client letters as powerful pedagogical tools that not only support content learning but also enhance narrative coherence and student agency. By integrating motivation, structure, personal involvement, and sustained engagement, client letter narratives help transform STEM learning into an immersive, student-centered experience.

6.4. Conceptual Connection of the Findings

Our three main findings of this study provide a blueprint for writing client letters that actively immerse students as the protagonists of the narrative and are critical to the problem solution, while logically connecting intended learning. From the findings, we have developed the conceptual framework in Figure 6, which categorizes the instructional and narrative support provided by client letters and can be used to guide the development of client letters in support of immersive engineering design-based STEM integration curricula. Using the pillars from immersive education, the entire set of client letters within a unit must provide the dramatic structure to logically arrange the narrative arc in a way that keeps students focused on both the narrative and the learning, the motivation trigger to help students want to participate, the involvement of the self to make students the protagonist in the narrative, and the continuous engagement to encourage purposeful contributions from all learners. Yet, the framework must anchor knowledge building as the primary goal of the curriculum and, therefore, serve as a synergy for the curriculum. The engineering design process drives the curriculum progression through problem framing, problem scoping, design detailing, and concluding the project—with room to move between them fluidly as needed for the storyline. This framework supports the development of client letters that serve to synergize knowledge in immersive engineering design-based STEM integration learning experiences.

7. Limitations of the Study

This study was limited to free and open-access K-12 STEM integration curricula that included client letters, which may not reflect the full range of existing materials, particularly proprietary or commercial curricula. Additionally, the analysis focused on the structure and content of the client letters rather than how they are implemented or experienced in classrooms. As such, findings reflect intended rather than enacted curriculum. Future research should examine how teachers and students engage with client letters in practice to better understand their impact on learning and engagement.

Furthermore, while our analysis identified consistent use of messaging themes and immersive elements across the dataset, we did not explicitly analyze examples of breakdowns or limitations in how client letters functioned. Future research could investigate variations in implementation quality, potential mismatches between letters and curricular goals, or student engagement across differing narrative structures.

8. Conclusions and Implications of the Study

This study offers both conceptual and practical implications for educators, curriculum developers, and professional development providers aiming to support integrated STEM instruction through immersive, engineering design-based learning. Our findings affirm the power of client letters as pedagogical tools that do more than introduce a design challenge—they provide narrative structure, contextual relevance, and sustained motivation for student engagement and knowledge building. For educators, client letters can help frame learning as a purposeful journey, supporting students in understanding why they are learning something and how it connects to a broader context. By analyzing the messaging themes in client letters, educators can more intentionally scaffold learning experiences that align with the engineering design process while keeping students emotionally and cognitively invested in the storyline. For curriculum writers, our findings offer a design heuristic for constructing effective client letters that contribute meaningfully to integrated STEM instruction. Writers can apply the messaging themes and immersive pillars outlined in this study to ensure client letters support both content integration and storyline coherence. The Conceptual Framework for Client Letter Development (Figure 6) also helps ensure that knowledge building remains central, while allowing for creative flexibility in how the narrative evolves. For professional development providers, the framework provides a concrete tool to help teachers recognize the narrative features and immersive functions of client letters. PD providers can use this framework to guide teachers in planning, implementing, and reflecting on client letter use, with an emphasis on supporting curricular progression, disciplinary synergy, and student identity development. More broadly, this study contributes to the growing body of research emphasizing the importance of context, narrative, and student agency in STEM education. By demonstrating how client letters can serve as a vehicle for immersive, student-centered, interdisciplinary learning, this work supports the ongoing shift toward more authentic and engaging K-12 STEM experiences.