Exploring Tarbiyah in Islamic Education: A Critical Review of the English- and Arabic-Language Literature

Abstract

This review examines the meaning and scope of tarbiyah and its relationship to other key Islamic educational concepts, such as taʿlīm, tadrīs, and taʾdīb, in the English- and Arabic-language literature. The central question guiding this review is as follows: what does tarbiyah signify in primary and secondary sources, and how is it conceptually linked to taʿlīm, tadrīs, and taʾdīb? Employing a narrative review, this study critically examines relevant texts to clarify the distinctions and connections among these foundational concepts, offering insight into their roles within Islamic educational discourse. The English-language literature on the subject reveals divergent views on the meaning and the interplay between these concepts, their relationships, and their hierarchical order. This is less prominent in the Arabic-language literature. A deeper understanding of tarbiyah can help shape the vision and mission of Islamic schools and teacher education programmes, while also guiding the development of educational policies and praxes that are both academically rigorous and grounded in Islamic educational principles. Such an approach supports the holistic intellectual, moral, and spiritual development of learners.

1. Introduction

Islamic schools in Western contexts (or Muslim-minority contexts) have expanded over the last five decades or so and with that the academic field that deals with Islamic education (Memon et al., 2021; Douglass & Shaikh, 2004). There is a growing body of academic studies on the purpose, aims, philosophy, pedagogy, and other dimensions of Islamic education and schooling (e.g., Abdalla et al., 2022; Memon et al., 2021; Ghamra-Oui, 2020; Shakeel, 2018). More recently, calls for tajdīd (“renewal”) have intensified, advocating for a comprehensive renewal of Islamic schools based on an Islamic worldview and pedagogy (for example, Abdalla et al., 2018). Any study of Islamic education and schooling usually address the question of purpose: what is the purpose of Islamic education and schooling, and how does it differ from dominant, secular models?

Research in this area consistently argues that the fundamental purpose is the cognisance of God (maʿrifatullāh) and His worship (ʿubūdiyah) through God-consciousness (taqwa) and the refinement of the soul and character. This includes spiritual, physical, moral, and intellectual development (Memon et al., 2024; Sahin, 2017). Discussions surrounding this purpose—and the broader objectives of Islamic schools—almost always engage with and invoke the concept of tarbiyah and related terms such as taʿlīm, tadrīs, and taʾdīb (e.g., Al-Attas, 1980; Ahmed & Chowdhury, 2024; Al-Azem, 2016; Sahin, 2017). Collectively, these terms embody rich, interconnected meanings in Islamic educational philosophy. Given the frequent invocation of these concepts in contemporary research, a deeper understanding of these concepts and their relationships becomes especially important, particularly as these concepts can inform an educational praxis; teacher training programmes; and the intellectual, spiritual, and physical development of learners.

This study adopts an Islamic educational perspective to gain a deeper understanding of tarbiyah, taʿlīm, taʾdīb, and tadrīs within both the English and Arabic-language literature. This paper also engages with Arabic linguistic studies, particularly through the Cultural Discourse Studies (CDS) framework, which is outlined in the methodology section to critically examine how key Islamic educational concepts are understood, translated, and applied. This paper’s narrative review approach and comparative analysis of classical and contemporary sources further reinforce its educational focus, positioning it within Islamic education rather than Arabic linguistics or Islamic studies.

This narrative review aims to move beyond mere definitions and descriptions of the educational concepts under study, offering a critical analysis of the meaning and nuanced interrelationships that have evolved over centuries of scholarship. By examining the classical and contemporary literature on tarbiyah, this review explores how various interpretations and emphases have shaped these concepts. By clarifying the nuanced interplay between these terms, this review contributes to a comprehensive understanding of tarbiyah and its relationship with the other cited concepts.

2. Materials and Methods

This study utilises a narrative review approach to provide a qualitative synthesis of existing research on a particular topic, focusing on conceptual insights, theoretical developments, and critical discussions rather than systematic data analysis. Unlike systematic reviews, which follow a structured methodology for selecting and analysing studies, narrative reviews allow for flexibility in selecting and interpreting sources, making them particularly useful for exploring complex, interdisciplinary, or theoretical subjects (Baker, 2016). This review does not aim to be exhaustive but rather focuses on key works and influential scholarly contributions that address the question of tarbiyah. Using a narrative approach to a literature review, the author (a) summarises and critiques a body of literature, (b) draws conclusions about the topic, (c) identifies gaps or inconsistencies in the body of knowledge, and (d) ultimately leads the reader to a sufficiently focused research question (Green et al., 2006). This method allows for flexibility in selecting and discussing influential works, providing a rich and nuanced understanding of the philosophical concepts under investigation.

A critical analysis focusing on a text’s content and meaning was conducted to identify how tarbiyah and associated concepts are conceptualised across the English- and Arabic-language literature. A critical analysis approach was chosen because it “has the methodological rigor necessary for making meaningful contributions to the field and can be applied no matter what literature review method authors choose” (Dodgson, 2021). The research process for conducting a critical analysis literature review consists of three phases: (a) the deconstruction phase, where individual studies are broken down into discrete data points or variables, such as study design or sampling methods; (b) the analysis phase, which involves cross-case comparisons to analyse aggregated data; and (c) the reconstruction phase, where relationships among variables are synthesised to create new knowledge that surpasses the individual findings (Dodgson, 2021). The findings are presented thematically, with sections dedicated to the definitions and discussions of tarbiyah, taʿlīm, taʾdīb, and tadrīs, followed by a comparative discussion that synthesises insights from both linguistic traditions.

The Cultural Discourse Studies (CDS) framework was used in translating key Arabic words and texts. At its core, CDS “seeks to deconstruct and neutralise ethnocentric biases in discourse and communication. It aims to foster research systems that are locally grounded yet globally relevant, encouraging intercultural dialogue and giving a voice to the marginalised”. Additionally, CDS supports “holistic worldviews, such as the Islamic concept of tawḥīd, for comparative studies on language and culture” (Hazaea, 2022). This is because “in the modern world, translating from dominant languages such as English and French into Arabic significantly contributes to confusion and the misuse of certain semantic fields within Islamic vocabulary today” (Hazaea, 2022). Equally, contemporary usage of certain Arabic concepts may become distorted due to the influence of English translation. Exploring the etymology of words and their connection to worldviews provides valuable insights into how language shapes our understanding of reality. This is because “languages construct, interpret, express, and make available to their speakers” a certain meaning of reality, or a “worldview” (Glaz & Głaz, 2019). Thus, “worldviews emerge, are constructed, shaped, and modified through translation, which can be understood both as a process and a product” (Glaz & Głaz, 2019).

Given the Arabic and Islamic nature of the terms explored in this study, a nuanced understanding requires examining them within the framework of the Islamic worldview, drawing on primary sources alongside classical and contemporary Arabic lexicons. This is because “the authentic sources of knowledge… in the Arabic language provide a scientific context for concept-formation” (Hazaea, 2022). For this reason, I have chosen to retain original Arabic terms, such as tarbiyah, in their untranslated form, providing explanations of their meanings as understood in Islamic Arabic sources. Additionally, I have preserved the existing translations of these terms as found in the English literature, even when I disagree with interpretations like translating tarbiyah as “education”, or “pedagogy”. In the transliteration of Arabic terms and names, macrons were used (such as ū, ṣ, ḥ, ā) to enable Arabic speakers and specialists to re-establish the precise equivalence of the words.

Selection Criteria

This study included a selection of the diverse and interdisciplinary literature, comprising over 40 scholarly primary and secondary sources in both Arabic and English. These include classical and modern works, with seminal texts such as Al-Attas (1980) and Ibn Manẓūr’s Lisān al-ʿArab, alongside contemporary peer-reviewed journal articles, monographs, and digital library resources. This study draws from a wide range of disciplines, including Islamic education, Islamic studies, linguistics, and pedagogy, allowing for both etymological and conceptual analyses. The inclusion criteria focused on works that directly address tarbiyah, taʿlīm, taʾdīb, and tadrīs, while sources lacking a specific conceptual engagement with tarbiyah were excluded. This blend of primary Islamic sources, classical dictionaries, and contemporary scholarship underscores a rigorous and holistic approach to examining Islamic educational concepts across time, languages, and worldviews.

Selecting the Qurʾān and Ḥadīth as primary sources is essential because they form the foundational texts of Islam, guiding all aspects of belief, practice, and ethics—including education. Any conceptual understanding of tarbiyah and its related terms must be rooted in these sources, as they provide the original linguistic, spiritual, and moral frameworks that define Islamic thought. The Qurʾān outlines the principles of tawḥīd (Oneness of God), human development, knowledge, and purification of the soul, while the Ḥadīth offers practical examples from the life of the Prophet Muhammad, demonstrating how the principles of tarbiyah are applied in nurturing individuals and communities (Haleem, 2005; Brown, 2009). Their inclusion ensures this study remains grounded in authentic Islamic epistemology.

Including secondary sources such as classical and contemporary authoritative Arabic dictionaries, along with the Arabic- and English-language literature, is vital for a comprehensive understanding of tarbiyah and its related concepts. Classical dictionaries provide deep etymological insights rooted in Islamic linguistic traditions, while contemporary works offer interpretations relevant to modern educational contexts. Together, these sources bridge historical understanding with current scholarly discourse, enabling a more nuanced and contextually grounded analysis of key educational concepts.

Tarbiyah is an Arabic Islamic term, and to fully grasp its etymological and technical meaning, several of the most authoritative classical and modern Arabic dictionaries were consulted, including the following: (1) Tāj al-ʿArūs Min Jawahir al-Qāmūs (The Crown of the Bridge from the Jewels of the Dictionary), which is an extensive and authoritative Arabic lexicon authored by Muḥammad Murtada al-Zabidī (1732–1790 CE), one of the greatest works of classical and modern Arabic heritage, and among the most important and widely used references by both scholars and the general public. (2) Lisān al-ʿArab (Tongue of the Arabs), one of the most comprehensive and influential lexicons of the Arabic language. Compiled by Ibn Manẓūr (1232–1311 CE), it is a monumental work that continues to serve as a foundational reference for linguists, scholars, and researchers in the field of Arabic studies. (3) Muʿjam al-Maʿānī al-Jāmiʿ (The Comprehensive Lexicon of Meanings—henceforth AlMaany), a modern Arabic-to-Arabic online dictionary designed to serve as an accessible and detailed linguistic resource for contemporary Arabic speakers, students, and researchers. Unlike classical lexicons, which often require advanced linguistic knowledge to navigate, this dictionary adopts a user-friendly approach while maintaining depth and accuracy. It provides aggregate entries from classical Arabic dictionaries like Lisān al-ʿArab, Tāj al-ʿArūs, and al-Qāmūs al-Muḥīṭ, offering users access to a rich linguistic heritage.

For the other Arabic and English secondary sources, several databases were searched, including Google Scholar, ProQuest, and university library catalogues. Arabic-language sources were accessed through comprehensive digital library platforms such as Al-Maktaba Al-Shamela (n.d.)1 and Al-Manhal (n.d.)2, as well as through the review of works by prominent scholars in Islamic education. Studies offering significant theoretical, philosophical, or interpretive insights into the concepts of tarbiyah, taʿlīm, tadrīs, and taʾdīb were included. Conversely, the literature that lacked a strong focus on tarbiyah or did not contribute meaningfully to its conceptual understanding was excluded.

3. Results

3.1. Tarbiyah and Associated Terms in Primary Sources: The Qur’an, Ḥadīth, and Arabic Dictionaries

As the primary source of Islam, the Qurʾān does not have the word “tarbiyah” in its precise form. The concept of tarbiyah in Arabic is etymologically linked to the roots r-b-b (ر ب ب) and r-b-w (ر ب و). These roots appear in various forms throughout the Qurʾān, reflecting themes of lordship, growth, and ethical increase. The root r-b-b is predominantly associated with the divine attribute “Rabb” (Lord), emphasising Allah’s role as the Sustainer and Nurturer of the world. This root appears extensively in the Qurʾān. For instance, Surah Al-Fatiha (1:2) uses “رَبِّ” (Rabb), highlighting Allah’s lordship and nurturing essence. The root r-b-w encompasses meanings related to growth and increase. It occurs several times in the Qurʿān in various derived forms, including (رَبَتْ—rabat) (22:5), conveying the sense of growth or swelling; (رَبَّيَ—rabbaya) (17:24), associated with nurturing or bringing up; (رِّبَا—riba) (2:275), referring to usury or interest, indicating an unlawful increase; and (رَبْوَة—rabwah) (23:50), meaning a high ground or elevation, symbolising a place that fosters growth. These occurrences underscore the Qurʿānic emphasis on concepts of nurturing, growth, and ethical increase, which are foundational to the understanding of tarbiyah in Islam.

Additionally, the fundamental principles of tarbiyah are found in the Qurʾān. These relate to the intellectual, spiritual, and physical dimensions of the human being. The Qurʾān has outlined the foundations of intellectual tarbiyah through its focus on the importance of gaining and imparting ‘ilm (knowledge, physical and metaphysical), ʿilm al-ẓāhir (outward/physical), and ʿilm al-bāṭin (inward/spiritual)) in several verses (e.g., 16:78, 90:8–10) (Al-Dedew, 2023). The care given to spiritual development in the Qurʾān is profound, as numerous verses highlight the foundations of the purification of the soul, morality, and the principles of interpersonal conduct (e.g., 3:159, 4:36, 17:23–24). The Qurʾān contains more than a thousand verses dedicated solely to spiritual tarbiyah (Al-Dedew, 2023). The same applies to physical tarbiyah, as it also receives great care and emphasis in the Qurʾān (e.g., 67:15, 23:5, and 38:45). Thus, “…all of this demonstrates the Qurʾān’s emphasis on tarbiyah, and that the foundational principles of this entire tarbiyah are derived from it” (Al-Dedew, 2023).

Likewise, in the Ḥadīth literature, the exact term tarbiyah does not appear, but one can find ample reference to its principles and holistic meaning. For example, there are a multitude of Ḥadīth that address intellectual tarbiyah by focusing on the obligation, virtues, and importance of seeking knowledge such as “If anyone pursues a path in search of knowledge, God will thereby make easy for him a path to paradise” (Ṣaḥiḥ Muslim 204, n.d); spiritual tarbiyah, “Allah does not look at your physical bodies or wealth but your hearts and actions” (Sunan Ibn Mājah 4143, n.d.); and physical tarbiyah that emphasise moderation, gratitude, and mindfulness in dietary habits, “A human being fills no worse vessel than his stomach” (Sunan Ibn Mājah 4143, n.d.).

In the Arabic-language dictionaries, the word tarbiyah has three roots: rabā yarbū (ربا يربو), rabā yurbī (ربا يربي), and rabba yarubbu (رَبَّ—يَرُبُّ), with the associated meaning of growth and increase, formation and development, protection and care, improvement and foundation, and firmness in knowledge. In Tāj al-ʿArūs, tarbiyah is found under the root word rabū (ربو) and rabā (رَبا). It states the following:

The word rabā means: ‘the thing grew’ (yarbū) ‘rising or increasing,’ with the verbal noun (rubūw) being analogous to (‘ulūw [elevation]). In al-Ṣiḥāḥ it is recorded as (rabwan), with an open vowel on the ‘b’; and as (ribāʾan)…It means (it increased, grew, or elevated) …And in al-Muḥkam: Arbaytuhu means ‘I caused it to grow or increase,’ and this is the correct interpretation. This is derived from the saying of the Almighty ‘…and He causes charities to grow’ [2:276].

(Zabīdī, n.d.)

Furthermore, it states the following:

(Rabbaytuhu- ورَبَّيْتُه) by me (Tarbiyah): meaning ‘I nurtured or nourished it.’ Al-Raghib [al-Iṣfahānī, d. 1108 CE] said: It is said that the root of (Rabbayt) originates from a doubled verb that was altered for ease, like (Tadhannaytu—تَظَنَّيْتُ). (Katarbaytuhu— كَتَرَّبْيتُه); Al-Jawharī [d.1010 CE)] said: This applies to everything that grows, like a child, crops, and similar things.

(Zabīdī, n.d.)

Thus, in Tāj al-ʿArūs, tarbiyyah is rooted in the words rabū (growth, elevation) and rabā (to grow/increase), signifying the act of nurturing or causing something to grow physically, intellectually, or spiritually. It encompasses the holistic development of anything that grows, such as a child or crops, aligning with the divine principle of fostering growth and elevation, as referenced in the Qur’anic context of charity. Clarifying this further, Lisān al-ʿArab states the following:

Al-Asmaʿī [d. 828 CE] said: “I grew up (rabawtu) among the tribe of so-and-so, meaning I was raised or brought up among them. The phrase (rabbaytu fulanan) means ‘I nurtured or raised someone,’ with the forms (tarbiyah), (tarabbaytuhu), (rababtuhu), and (rabbabtuhu) all carrying the same meaning”. Al-Jawharī said: “(Rabbaytuhu) means ‘I nurtured or nourished him,’ and (tarabbaytuhu) has the same meaning. This applies to everything that grows, such as a child, crops, and similar things.

(Ibn Manẓūr, 1993)

Furthermore, it states the following:

And he nurtured (rabbā) his child or the boy (yarubbuhu rabban), and (rabbabahu) means raising or nurturing, according to al-Liḥyānī [d. 815 CE]: it carries the meaning of raising or nurturing (rabāhu). In the ḥadīth: ‘You have a blessing (niʿmah) that you nurture (tarubbuhā),’ meaning you preserve, care for, and nurture it, just as a man nurtures his child…He excelled in taking care of him and looked after him until he transitioned out of childhood, whether the person was his own child or not.

(Ibn Manẓūr, 1993)

In explaining the verbal noun of rabbā (رَبَّى), Muʿjam al-Maʿānī al-Jāmiʿ- Muʿjam ʿArabī ʿArabī states the following:

Rabbā, yurabbī, rabb, tarbiyah, and the active participle is murabbī, while the object is murabbā. The father rabbā his son: He disciplined him and developed his physical, intellectual, and moral abilities to help him reach their full potential. The verbal noun of رَبَّى (rabbā): He stayed up caring for his Child’s proper upbringing: that is, refining his character, educating him, and nurturing him.

(Almaany Arabic dictionary, n.d.)

Thus, the etymological origin of tarbiyah is from the roots rabū (growth, elevation) and rabā (to grow/increase), emphasising nurturing, growth, and holistic development—physically, intellectually, and spiritually. It is an overarching concept that encompasses the act of raising or caring for someone or something, such as a child, crops, or a blessing, reflecting excellence in guidance and preservation. Classical linguistic authorities like Al-Jawharī and Al-Aṣmaʿī describe tarbiyah as the process of nurturing toward full potential, extending even beyond one’s own children, with examples found in linguistic traditions and prophetic sayings. The term also denotes moral, intellectual, and physical refinement, as exemplified by the parents’ role in developing a child’s character, discipline, and abilities, aligning with divine principles of fostering growth and care.

In contrast, concepts such as taʿlīm, tadrīs, and taʾdīb represent distinct but interrelated aspects of tarbiyah. The term taʿlīm (تَعْلِيم) is derived from the Arabic root ʿ-l-m (ʿayn-lām-mīm), which encompasses meanings related to knowledge, awareness, and instruction. In Lisān al-ʿArab, the verb ʿallama (عَلَّمَ) means “to teach” or “to instruct”, while the noun ʿilm (عِلْم) signifies “knowledge” or “science” (Ibn Manẓūr, 1993). According to Muʿjam al-Maʿānī, taʿlīm is “A branch [emphasis added] of tarbiyah concerned with methods of teaching learners’ various types of knowledge, sciences, and arts… Primary, secondary, and university taʿlīm are stages of imparting and teaching knowledge and skills. Technical and vocational taʿlīm is also included, as everyone has the right to taʿlīm” (Almaany Arabic dictionary, n.d.).

Tāj al-ʿArūs elaborates the following:

And he taught him knowledge (ʿilm) through taʿlīm and ʿilām—like kadhdhāb (emphatic forms)—so he learned it. The emphasis here is not for intensification, as Al-Jawharī stated. And he informed him of it (aʿlamahu iyāh), so he learned it. This clearly indicates that taʿlīm and iʿlām (‘informing’) are essentially the same. However, Sībawayh [d. around 796–797 CE] distinguished between them, saying: ʿallamtu is like adhdhantu (to teach or instruct), whereas aʿlamtu is like ādhantu (to inform or notify). Al-Rāghib said: “However, iʿlām (informing) is specifically related to swift notification, while taʿlīm pertains to repetition and elaboration, through which an effect is produced in the learner’s mind”. And some said: Taʿlīm is the act of awakening the mind to conceptualise meanings.

(Zabīdī, n.d.)

Tadrīs derives from the root d-r-s (درس) and the verbal noun of darrasa, as in Tadrasa al-kitāba wa naḥwahu: He taught the book and similar materials; he read and explained it to learners and others, helping them understand” (Almaany Arabic dictionary, n.d.). Tāj al-ʿArūs elaborates d-r-s (درس) to have a meaning as follows:

He repeated his reading of it in the lisān (‘tongue’ or ‘text’) and studied it, as if he struggled with it until it submitted to his memorisation. Another said: “He studied the book (darasa al-kitāb), meaning he studied it (yadrusuhu darsan): he made it easier to memorise through frequent reading, to the point that it became simple for him to retain, like the meaning of adrasahu [he taught it]. Al-Zamakhsharī [1075 CE to 1144 CE] said: “He studied the book (darasa al-kitāb) and taught it to others (darrasa ghayrahu): meaning he repeated it from memory.

(Zabīdī, n.d.)

Tadrīs is more associated with structured learning environments, like classrooms, where systematic instruction is provided. It is the process of formal education and structured lesson delivery. It is often used in contexts where instruction is directed, organised, and may involve a curriculum or syllabus. Taʿlīm has a broader, more holistic meaning than tadrīs that includes various forms of teaching, nurturing, and imparting wisdom beyond formal education. Tadrīs is more focused on the structured, formal process of teaching, especially within institutional settings. This distinction reflects a classical understanding where taʿlīm focuses on the imparting of values and knowledge in a holistic sense, while tadrīs emphasises organised, instructional methods.

The term taʾdīb (تأديب) is derived from the Arabic root ʾ-d-b (أ-د-ب), which encompasses meanings related to discipline, education, literature, and character refinement. In Lisān al-ʿArab and Tāj al-ʿArūs, this root is associated with the concept of instilling good manners and proper conduct, but it can also mean disciplining. The verb ʾaddaba (أدّب) means “to discipline” or “to educate”, while adab (أدب) refers to “manners”, “etiquette”, or “literature”. The AlMaany defines taʾdīb as follows:

The act of disciplining or refining behaviour. For instance, ‘It was necessary to discipline him for his misbehavior’ implies the need to punish or correct him. Taʾdīb encompasses the idea of refinement and correction. In Islamic jurisprudence, it is described as a mild form of reprimand or punishment intended for reform and improvement.

(Almaany Arabic dictionary, n.d.)

AlMaany adds that in Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh) taʾdīb means “a mild form of reprimand or punishment intended for correction and reform”, and in Psychology “The regulation of inclinations or behaviour, either through individual will or under the influence of external authority”. It can also mean “Any action that makes a person refined and of good character; it also refers to disciplining others to make them well-mannered” (Almaany Arabic dictionary, n.d.). According to Lisān al-ʿArab, taʾdīb is “That which refines a person’s character; it is called ʾadab because it guides people toward praiseworthy qualities and keeps them away from reprehensible actions”. Thus, lexically, taʾdīb signifies actions that cultivate good manners and guide individuals toward virtuous conduct.

In comparing tarbiyah, taʿlīm, tadrīs, and taʾdīb, their distinct yet interrelated meanings are shown. Tarbiyah, rooted in rabū (growth) and rabā (increase), is overarching and emphasises holistic nurturing—physical, intellectual, and spiritual. By contrast, taʿlīm encompasses broader teaching and awareness, often associated with repeated and deliberate efforts to instil understanding. Tadrīs focuses on structured, formal instruction within organised environments, prioritising systematic teaching methods. Meanwhile, taʾdīb, relates to instilling manners and correcting/refining behaviour, combining education with moral development. Taʿlīm, tadrīs, and taʾdīb are branches of tarbiyah, and together, these terms illustrate a spectrum of educational approaches, from nurturing values and holistic growth (tarbiyah), imparting knowledge and wisdom (taʿlīm), structured lesson delivery (tadrīs), to refining character and correcting conduct (taʾdīb), each playing a pivotal role in the Islamic understanding of education. (

Table 1. Summary of the etymology and meaning of key terms.

Tarbiyah	From the root rabā yarbū (ربا يربو), rabā yurbī (ربا يربي), and rabba yarubbu (ربّ يربّ).	An overarching term that means growth and increase, formation and development, protection, care, and improvement. The gradual development (process) of something (e.g., child, learner), stage by stage, until it reaches completion.
Tadrīs	From the root d-r-s (درس) and the verbal noun of darrasa.	This is associated with structured learning environments, like classrooms, where systematic instruction is provided. It is the process of formal education and structured lesson delivery. It is often used in contexts where instruction is directed, organised, and may involve a curriculum or syllabus.
Taʿlīm	From the root “ع ل م” (ʿ-l-m).	This has a broader, more holistic meaning than tadrīs that includes various forms of teaching, nurturing, and imparting wisdom beyond formal education.
Taʾdīb	Derived from the root “أدب” (ʾ-d-b).	The act of teaching good manners, disciplining, or correcting behaviour. This encompasses both the instruction of proper conduct and the use of “corrective” measures to address misconduct. The term is also associated with the broader concept of cultivating virtuous qualities and moral refinement.

provides a summary of key terms.)

3.2. Tarbiyah in the English-Language Literature

The review of the English-language literature begins with the work of Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas (b. 1931), recognised as a pioneer in modern Islamic educational discourse. Al-Attas’s seminal contribution emphasises a holistic Islamic notion of personal development in which knowledge is deeply intertwined with ethical and spiritual dimensions. Central to his argument is the notion that the term tarbiyah fails to encapsulate the entirety of the Islamic educational process, which, in his view, must integrate both intellectual and moral elements. In his influential text, The Concept of Education in Islam: A Framework for an Islamic Philosophy of Education (1980), Al-Attas argues that tarbiyah does not sufficiently express the essence of Islamic education because it lacks the intellectual dimension necessary to cultivate an individual’s understanding of their relationship with God. Instead, he posits that taʾdīb—which encompasses knowledge (ʿilm), instruction (taʿlīm), and proper conduct (ʿadab)—is the correct term for Islamic education. Tarbiyah, according to al-Attas, is more aligned with a process of gradual physical and moral development that may occur independently of intellectual and spiritual growth. Al-Attas links the absence of adab to social disorder, suggesting that taʾdīb provides the solution by ensuring the proper recognition of hierarchy and leadership in all aspects of life, including one’s relationship with God. Al-Attas writes the following:

Since the essential intellectual element is not inherent in the concept of tarbiyah, the educational process that makes man recognize and acknowledge his position in relation to God, his true Possessor, and that makes him act in accordance with that recognition and acknowledgement, is in reality not a matter of tarbiyah, but a matter of ta’dīb, for adab towards God is but another expression of sincere servanthood as actualized in ʿibādah.

(Al-Attas, 1980, p. 30)

Thus, taʾdīb, as defined by al-Attas, integrates intellectual, ethical, and spiritual development, making it the foundation of Islamic education. While al-Attas’s arguments have significantly shaped contemporary Islamic educational thought, his assertion that taʾdīb is superior to tarbiyah has not gone without critique. Azra challenges the exclusion of tarbiyah from the Islamic educational process, suggesting that both terms are integral to a more holistic and flexible model. He argues that tarbiyah is equally valuable in shaping an individual’s intellectual, moral, and spiritual growth and should not be dismissed as merely nurturing or incomplete. Azra posits that an overemphasis on adab may introduce rigid hierarchies that limit the adaptability of Islamic education to contemporary contexts, particularly where creativity and flexibility are essential (Azra, 2006). Certainly, the primary sources of Islam, as outlined above, also challenge al-Attas’s argument.

Tauhidi, another visionary educational leader and practitioner in Islamic educational discourse, contributed one of the most comprehensive projects on tarbiyah that aimed at providing a “a holistic vision and integrated approach to education that seeks to nurture the character and inner spirit of children and empower them to self-discovery, wholeness and social consciousness”. Tauhidi briefly engages with the lexical roots and meaning of tarbiyah and provides the following comprehensive definition:

The concepts of increase, elevation, growth, development, nurture and upbringing are all aspects of the word tarbiyah. Broadly speaking, it conveys the cosmological principle of expansion, emergence, unfoldment, becoming and fulfillment. For humankind, in particular, tarbiyah can be understood as the Islamic science of growth and development.

(Tauhidi, 2001–2007)

In discussing the relationship between taʿlīm and tarbiyah, Tauhidi asserts that “knowledge (taʿlīm) is simply a means or tool to the real goal of education, which is human development and transformation (tarbiyah)”. His Tarbiyah Project, developed in the U.S. context, prioritises the spiritual and moral formation of learners over the mere transmission of knowledge. While this perspective is comprehensive and foregrounds the transformative aims of tarbiyah, Tauhidi’s framework offers limited analysis of the distinctions between tarbiyah, taʿlīm, taʾdīb, and related concepts. This weakens the theoretical depth of his approach and leaves an important gap in understanding how tarbiyah operates in relation to the broader Islamic educational lexicon.

Günther (2016) interprets tarbiyah as “pedagogy”, arguing that the classical adab al-ʿālim wa-l-mutaʿallim (‘the etiquette of scholars and learners’) literature can be viewed as “pedagogical”, despite the absence of a formal discipline known as ʿilm al-tarbiyah in premodern Islam. He defines tarbiyah, rooted in the verb rabbā (“to raise” or “to educate”), as encompassing the broad aims of education, including knowledge transmission, value formation, and skill development. While Günther acknowledges related concepts such as taʿlīm, taʿallum, tadrīs, and taʾdīb, his treatment remains largely descriptive and stops short of analysing the conceptual distinctions or interrelationships among these terms.

Appreciating the distinction difference between the various concepts, Al-Azem (2016) offers a nuanced explanation:

Survey the classical literature treating education in the Muslim world and you quickly discover that a discreet set of terms emerges: taʿlīm, tadrīs, taʾdīb, and tarbiya. While related and often used in close proximity—at times almost interchangeably—each normally conveys a distinct meaning in the context of the institutions and practices of learning, and each reflects a nuance of educational objective.

(Al-Azem, 2016)

Al-Azem offers a useful distinction among key Islamic educational concepts: taʿlīm is positioned as formal instruction within a teacher–student relationship, while tadrīs refers more narrowly to the structured delivery of lessons. Taʾdīb is described as the inculcation of moral discipline and proper conduct, particularly linked to early education, whereas tarbiyah is framed as a transformative, long-term process of nurturing personal maturity. This is a comprehensive and informative understanding of tarbiyah.

Halstead (2004) reduces the concept of education in Islam to three core terms—tarbiyah, taʾdīb, and taʿlīm—framing them, respectively, as the development of individual potential, moral and social character formation, and the transmission of knowledge. While this tripartite model is conceptually useful, Halstead’s approach raises several concerns. First, it restricts the scope of Islamic education to only these terms, overlooking the broader philosophical and epistemological foundations that underlie Islamic pedagogy. Second, his characterisation of the terms as “overlapping” rather than complementary diminishes the distinct yet interrelated roles each plays in a holistic educational process. Finally, the tendency to conflate taʾdīb and taʿlīm with tarbiyah risks diluting their specific contributions to the moral and intellectual formation of the learner.

Drawing on Halstead, Abdullah et al. (2015) present tarbiyah, taʿlīm, and taʾdīb as distinct yet complementary concepts used across Islamic contexts to frame holistic education, each addressing different dimensions of human development—physical, intellectual, moral, and spiritual. While their account provides a useful differentiation—defining taʿlīm as rational instruction, tarbiyah as personality development and nurturing, and taʾdīb as ethical training informed by al-Attas—they ultimately adopt al-Attas’s’s critique of tarbiyah as an inadequate term for Islamic education. However, their reliance on al-Attas’s objection, which centres on the claim that tarbiyah lacks the conceptual depth to embody knowledge, intelligence, and virtue, warrants further scrutiny. This dismissal overlooks the evolving and context-sensitive interpretations of tarbiyah in contemporary educational discourse.

Waghid and Davids (2016) briefly mention tarbiyah, taʿlīm, and taʾdīb in the context of the Islamisation of knowledge, yet their treatment lacks depth and conceptual rigour. They propose a reinterpretation of these terms—tarbiyah as socialisation, taʿlīm as critical engagement, and taʾdīb as social activism—without substantiating these deviations from established scholarly definitions. The absence of justification for these alternative framings weakens the theoretical coherence of their argument.

Sahin (2017) identifies tarbiyah as the most used term for education in Muslim cultures, while also acknowledging a range of related concepts—taʿlīm/tadrīs (teaching), taʾdīb (moral disciplining), talqīn (instruction), tazkiyah (purification), islāḥ (reform), and sulūk (psychospiritual formation)—that capture different dimensions of the educational process. He characterises tarbiyah as a multidimensional, person-centred approach encompassing physical and spiritual nourishment, care, and guidance. Through an etymological analysis, Sahin introduced the “cloud–grass theory of education”, suggesting that nature itself serves as an educator. That is as follows:

In short, facilitating a growth process by looking after, nurturing and guiding those who are to be educated are central to the meaning of tarbiyah… Like in any genuine educational process, as distinct from indoctrination or mere training, tarbiyah strongly implies presence of moral principles ensuring a mutual balance and respect between the authority of educator and the autonomy of the learner.

Sahin connects this idea to the Latin word educare and the Greek word pedagogy, arguing “today mainly used to describe teaching methods, in its original Greek literally meant ‘to lead the child’, which is remarkably close to the meaning of care upbringing suggested by tarbiyah” (Sahin, 2017, p. 183). He also argues that “Both tarbiyah and education (educare) strongly indicate the process of facilitation and leading thoughts out, rather than pushing information in”. While Sahin offers a rich, etymologically informed interpretation of tarbiyah and usefully situates it within broader philosophical traditions, his comparison with Western terms like educare and pedagogy risks oversimplifying the unique epistemological and spiritual dimensions of Islamic education. The “cloud–grass theory”, while metaphorically appealing, may lack the conceptual precision needed for rigorous application within Islamic pedagogical frameworks. Additionally, the emphasis on learner autonomy, though valuable, would benefit from deeper engagement with how authority and tradition function in classical Islamic educational contexts. Building on Sahin and Halstead, Alkouatli (2018, p.1) repeats their understanding of tarbiyah as “holistic individual development to maturity in relational community” and “human flourishing,” equates tarbiyah with “pedagogy” and noting that “pedagogy is derived from Greek and refers to a process of leading or nurturing a child, holding meanings similar to the Arabic concept of tarbiyah.”

Ahmed (2012) conceptualises tarbiyah as a holistic process of personal development that integrates moral, spiritual, and intellectual growth. She extends its relevance beyond child-rearing to include self-education, with the objective of cultivating a coherent Muslim identity (shakhsiyah). By advocating a synthesis of Islamic values and contemporary educational approaches, Ahmed positions tarbiyah as a framework for enabling learners to navigate both religious and modern contexts. Elsewhere, Ahmed and Chowdhury (2024) argue that taʿlīm is intrinsically linked to tarbiyah and that foregrounding tarbiyah reorients education away from state or economic agendas toward holistic human development. In this model, educators are seen as facilitators of the learner’s fiṭrah (innate potential), fostering personal growth and transformation. Learning is thus reframed as an active, transformative process rather than rote memorisation. In outlining an Islamic conceptual framework for reconstructing K–12 education, Ahmed and Chowdhury position tarbiyah as one of several interconnected but distinct pillars—alongside tazkiyah (purification), taḥqīq (realisation), taʿalluq (connection), taʿāruf (acquaintance), taʾdīb (discipline), and taʿlīm (instruction). This formulation implies an equivalence between tarbiyah and these other concepts, potentially underplaying its integrative and overarching role in classical Islamic educational thought. Such a framing may dilute the centrality of tarbiyah as the main concept through which other educational aims are achieved.

Finally, Zuhdi and Dobson (2024) frame tarbiyah as an educational concept centred on active student engagement, lifelong learning, and holistic human flourishing. While they acknowledge its moral, spiritual, and social dimensions, their treatment of tarbiyah as a contested signifier in Islamic education—especially amid global policy pressures—adds important contextual insight. However, their discussion tends to blur the conceptual boundaries between tarbiyah, taʿlīm, and taʾdīb, recognising tarbiyah as broader yet noting its practical overlap with the other terms. This ambiguity calls for a clearer articulation of how tarbiyah maintains conceptual coherence while navigating diverse educational contexts.

Summary

The English-language literature on tarbiyah reflects a dynamic and evolving discourse that grapples with its meaning; scope; and relationship with other foundational Islamic educational concepts such as taʿlīm, taʾdīb, and tadrīs. Al-Attas’s influential position argues for taʾdīb as the most comprehensive term, integrating intellectual, ethical, and spiritual dimensions, while critiquing tarbiyah for lacking intellectual depth. Other scholars such as Tauhidi, Al-Azem, and Sahin advocate for a broader, more inclusive understanding of tarbiyah as central to personal development and spiritual growth. They contribute valuable lexical and historical insights but vary in the depth of their conceptual differentiation. While some advance tarbiyah as a holistic model, critiques emerge around the tendency to misalign it with Western pedagogical frameworks or terminology such as “pedagogy” and “education”. Collectively, the English-literature underscores both the centrality of tarbiyah in Islamic education and the ongoing need for greater conceptual clarity to distinguish its unique epistemological and spiritual significance within a holistic Islamic educational philosophy.

3.3. Tarbiyah in the Arabic-Language Literature

The Arabic literature is rich with works dedicated to the topic of tarbiyah, including its meaning, scope, and application within Islamic education. Al-Dedew (2023) explains that tarbiyah is derived from rabbāhu—with abāhu yurabbīhi meaning to gradually lead someone to their perfection step by step. He argues the Arabs use four verbs from this root, saying rabbāhu yurabbīhi when referring to the process of bringing someone to their completeness. He defines tarbiyah as a gradual process of nurturing toward perfection, linking it to Ar-Rabb (God, the Lord) as the ultimate nurturer. He outlines three stages: full dependence in childhood, partial autonomy in adolescence, and full responsibility in adulthood. He also identifies three dimensions—intellectual growth through knowledge, physical development through health, and spiritual purification (tazkiyah) through spiritual refinement. He adds the following:

The human being is composed of three elements. The intellect, whose tarbiyah and development occur through knowledge and study; the body, which is nurtured and strengthened through experience, health, hygiene, and other means; and the soul, whose tarbiyah and purification [tazkiyah] take place through several aspects, including abandoning what Allah has forbidden, repenting from all sins, freeing itself from the traits of hypocrites and diseases of the heart, and adorning itself with the qualities of the people of faith.

(Al-Dedew, 2020)

In his five-volume collection, Ahmad (2016) critically examines the practical realities faced by Islamic schools in Lebanon in teaching tarbiyah Islāmiya (what has become widely known as “Islamic studies” in Islamic schools), including gaps between educational ideals and actual practice, issues with curriculum development, teaching methods, and the lack of integration with learners’ broader social and moral development. Although the focus is on “tarbiyah Islāmiya”, Ahmad’s offers an in-depth study of the general and specific aims of the concept of tarbiyah, where tarbiyah encompasses two key meanings: the development of specific human capacities (e.g., intellectual or spiritual) and a gradual, cumulative process that unfolds in successive, interconnected stages. In defining tarbiyah, he states the following:

It becomes clear to us from what has been presented that tarbiyah has two meanings: (1) The first meaning: growth and increase, which is the development of the aspect that is being directed towards, so cognitive/intellectual tarbiyah aims at developing cognitive/intellectual abilities, and spiritual tarbiyah aims at developing spiritual abilities, and so on; (2) Gradual Progress: tarbiyah is a cumulative effort, each part supporting the other. It does not occur suddenly or all at once; rather, it takes place in successive stages.

(Ahmad, 2016, pp. 46–47)

Likewise, Ibrahim (1986) defined tarbiyah as follows: “The development of all aspects of the Islamic personality—intellectual, emotional, physical, and social—and the regulation of its behaviour based on the principles and teachings of Islam, with the aim of achieving the objectives of Islam in various areas of life” (cited in Attār, 1998, p. 30). Attār (1998) critiques Ibrahim’s definition of tarbiyah for overlooking key dimensions of the integrated Islamic personality “…such as the spiritual, moral, wilful, and creative dimensions, as well as the aspect of faith (belief). It also does not emphasise the continuity of Islamic tarbiyah throughout all stages of human development”. She argues that tarbiyah is more comprehensive, as it encompasses the spiritual, moral, intellectual, volitional, and creative dimensions of the human personality, while also emphasising the continuous nature of tarbiyah across all stages of life. Attār (1998, p. 29) cites al-Qāḍī al-Bayḍāwī’s (circa d. 685 AH/1286 CE) definition of tarbiyah, “…[as] is the process of gradually bringing something to its perfection”. Yaljin commented on this definition, saying, “It is observed that this definition is broader in scope than being limited to the human being, as it includes humans, animals, agriculture, and even the construction of anything…” (cited in Attār, 1998, pp. 29–30). Yaljin defines tarbiyah as follows:

The science of preparing the Muslim individual for both worldly life and the Hereafter in a complete manner—physically, intellectually, scientifically, doctrinally, spiritually, morally, socially, volitionally, and creatively—across all stages of development, in light of Islamic principles and values, and in accordance with the methods, means, and approaches of education outlined by Islam.

(Cited in Attār, 1998, p. 31)

ʿUmar (2000) defines tarbiyah as “the development of physical, mental, and moral functions to reach perfection through training and refinement”. Al-Ahwani et al. (2021) echoes this view, stating, “Islamic tarbiyah, since the advent of Islam, has combined disciplining the self, purifying the soul, cultivating the mind, and strengthening the body. It is concerned with religious, moral, intellectual, and physical education, without sacrificing any one aspect at the expense of another”.

Importantly, Arabic-language literature recognises that tarbiyah is often shaped by temporal, spatial, and social factors that influence a person’s character in distinct ways. Every activity or endeavour a person undertakes inevitably contributes to their development, behaviour, interactions, and adaptation to their environment, with the potential for both positive and negative impacts. Al-Ghamdī (1997–1998) notes that many educators view tarbiyah as resistant to a fixed definition due to its inherent complexity and its sensitivity to cultural, religious, and contextual factors. He describes it as a dynamic, evolving process shaped by time and place, as “one of the living issues” marked by continual growth and adaptation. Early Muslim scholars employed terms that conveyed the meaning of tarbiyah, or concepts closely related to it. This is perhaps why Morsi (2005) explains that “the term tarbiyyah in its technical sense is considered one of the modern words that emerged in recent years, linked to the movement for educational renewal in Arab countries during the second quarter of the twentieth century; therefore, we do not find it used in ancient Arabic sources”. Instead, classical texts employed terms such as taʿlīm, taʾdīb, and tahdhīb, which collectively conveyed the meanings now associated with tarbiyah.

The definition and process of tarbiyah also include tanshi’a (nurturing from a young age), iṣlāḥ (reform of individuals and society through the correction of faults), taṭhīr (purification), as well as nasīḥah and akhlāq (Abu ʿArrād, n.d.). For this reason, Ibn al-Jawzī al-Baghdādī (d. 597 AH/1200 CE) employed the term riyāḍah as part of tarbiyah, as seen in his remark:

Know that the discipline (riyāḍah) of the soul should be carried out with gentleness and gradual transition from one state to another. One should not begin with harshness, but rather with gentleness, then mix hope with fear. Aiding the process of discipline are the companionship of the righteous, distancing from the wicked, studying the Qurʾān and prophetic reports, reflecting on Paradise and Hell, and reading the biographies of the wise and the ascetics.

(Cited in Attār, 1998, p. 21)

That is, tarbiyah is broader than taʿlīm (Morsi, 2005), tadrīs, and taʾdīb and functions as an overarching framework that integrates and gives coherence to these concepts.

Summary

The Arabic-language literature offers a rich and multifaceted exploration of tarbiyah, highlighting its linguistic, conceptual, and practical significance within Islamic education. Rooted in the idea of gradual nurturing toward perfection, tarbiyah is consistently portrayed as a comprehensive and lifelong process that cultivates the intellectual, spiritual, moral, and physical dimensions of the human being. Scholars such as al-Dedew, al-Bāni, and Subhi Ibrahim emphasise its staged nature and link it to divine nurturing, while others, including ʿAttār and Yaljin, call for more expansive definitions that reflect the full spectrum of human development. The literature also underscores the dynamic and context-sensitive character of tarbiyah, shaped by temporal, cultural, and social realities. While classical texts favoured terms like taʿlīm, taʾdīb, and tahdhīb, modern scholars recognise tarbiyah as an integrative framework that encompasses and unifies these concepts, aiming not merely for the transmission of knowledge but also the holistic formation of individuals prepared to thrive ethically and spiritually in society. The common thread across the Arabic sources is tarbiyah’s role as a foundational concept in Islamic education, and is a transformative process of developing, nurturing and cultivating the whole person.

4. Discussion

This review examined the concept of tarbiyah and its relationship with related terms such as taʿlīm, tadrīs, and taʾdīb, as discussed in both the Arabic- and English-language literature. Several key insights emerge from the analysis that merit further exploration. The primary sources of the Qurʾān and Ḥadīth do not explicitly mention the term tarbiyah, but they convey its essence through various terms and root words. These primary sources emphasise tarbiyah as a comprehensive and holistic process that encompasses the nurturing, development, and care of the human being across physical, intellectual, and spiritual dimensions. An analysis of authoritative Arabic dictionaries confirms this understanding, demonstrating that tarbiyah has a broader scope than taʿlīm, tadrīs, and taʾdīb.

Likewise, the Arabic-language literature consistently presents tarbiyah as a comprehensive framework that subsumes taʿdīb, taʿlīm, and tadrīs as integral components. Rather than standing alone, these elements are viewed as interrelated functions through which tarbiyah is actualised, working in synergy to foster academic, physical, spiritual, moral, and social development. Rigidly separating these concepts can obscure the integrated nature of tarbiyah, where intellectual, spiritual, physical, and ethical growth occur simultaneously and harmoniously.

The clarity found in the Arabic-language literature was generally absent in several examples of the English-language literature. While some advocated a holistic understanding of tarbiyah (e.g., Tauhidi, Al-Azem, Sahin), others argued that taʾdīb is the more comprehensive concept (e.g., Al-Attas). An examination of the primary sources demonstrates taʾdīb as a branch of tarbiyah not the opposite. Others reduce it to notions of “education” or “pedagogy” (e.g., Günther, Alkouatli). A closer examination of the term “pedagogy” reveals a fundamental mismatch: the original paidagōgos in ancient Greece was not a teacher but a servant who escorted children to their teachers. This historical reality renders the modern use of “pedagogy” to mean the art or science of teaching something of a lexical distortion (Young, 2011). While it is true that the paidagōgos (usually a household slave) escorted or led the child to school, this was only one of many destinations, and his role was not inherently educational. Young (2011) argues the following:

Despite the games we often play with words, they are seldom defined by their derivations (etymology), more frequently their meanings are governed by their usage in sentences (semantics). Once we do that, we discover that the paidagōgos was not and never was a teacher. That is why the choice of ‘pedagogy’ for the English meaning, ‘the art of teaching,’ is so odd; it’s derived from a Greek word and custom that had little to do with the noble art of education.

Although often regarded as unsophisticated and frequently ridiculed by Greek philosophers, not all paidagōgoi conformed to this negative stereotype. Nevertheless, many did, rendering them problematic figures to idealise as models for modern educators. While some were reportedly kind and nurturing, others were known for harshness—employing threats; shouting; and even physical punishment such as pinching, caning, and hitting (Young, 2011). Unlike the limited and historically non-instructional role of the paidagōgos, and by extension the narrow scope of “pedagogy”, tarbiyah entails a far more comprehensive understanding.

Tarbiyah is concerned with cultivating a person’s full potential, not only through just the acquisition of knowledge but also through shaping character, ethical conduct, and religious consciousness. It is the most comprehensive of the concepts because it emphasises balanced, well-rounded growth over a lifetime, ensuring that individuals align their personal and social lives with Islamic values.

On the other hand, taʾdīb, taʿlīm, etc., are more narrowly focused and cannot on their own lead to tarbiyah. Taʿlīm involves imparting knowledge, skills, or information to others, thereby facilitating learning and comprehension. The term encompasses various forms of education and instruction, ranging from formal schooling to informal guidance. Tadrīs involves the process of imparting knowledge, skills, or information to others, typically within an educational setting. The term is commonly used to refer to the profession of teaching and the methodologies employed in education. And taʾdīb is focused on the cultivation of proper manners, discipline, and ethical conduct. It emphasises moral and behavioural refinement, ensuring individuals internalise the values necessary for righteous living. It is more concerned with correcting and shaping behaviour in accordance with Islamic norms, especially in social interactions and personal discipline. Rather than existing independently, concepts such as taʿlīm and taʾdīb serve as essential, interdependent elements that support and actualise the aims of tarbiyah, working in harmony to nurture a well-rounded and balanced individual.

The comprehensiveness and complexity of tarbiyah lies in its dynamic and context-sensitive nature. It is influenced by cultural, social, and historical factors, which means its application must be adaptable to various contexts while staying true to Islamic principles (Al-Ghamdī, 1997–1998; Morsi, 2005). The interplay between tarbiyah and related concepts highlights this adaptability: taʿlīm may take different forms depending on the educational setting, while taʾdīb might vary in its emphasis based on societal norms and values. This adaptability does not undermine the unity of tarbiyah but rather reinforces its comprehensive nature, demonstrating how tarbiyah can shape an educational praxis and incorporate diverse educational practices to achieve the overarching goal of nurturing individuals who embody Islamic values in all aspects of life. The gradual and cumulative nature of tarbiyah—emphasising continuous, stage-by-stage nurturing—illustrates the long-term commitment required for developing a complete and balanced individual who can fulfil their responsibilities to both God and society.

Based on the foregoing literature review, a working definition of tarbiyah may be proposed as follows:

Tarbiyah is a comprehensive, lifelong, and context-sensitive process of preparing the individual for both worldly life and the Hereafter in a complete manner—physically, intellectually, spiritually, morally, socially, volitionally, and creatively—across all stages of development, in light of Islamic principles and values, and in accordance with the methods, means, and approaches of education outlined by Islam. Its dynamic nature enables it to respond to diverse cultural and social contexts while remaining grounded in Islamic principles. The interplay between tarbiyah and related concepts such as taʿlīm, tadrīs, and taʾdīb reinforces its overarching and integrative function, allowing it to subsume and draw upon varied educational practices in the pursuit of holistic personal and societal flourishing.

5. Conclusions Limitations, and Implications

This review has examined the meaning and scope of tarbiyah and its relationship with related concepts such as taʿlīm, taʾdīb, and tadrīs across both the English- and Arabic-language literature. The findings highlight tarbiyah is not just “pedagogy” or “education” but is a lifelong, integrative process that unifies these concepts within a holistic framework. Rather than fragmenting educational aims, tarbiyah ensures the balanced development of the learner across spiritual, intellectual, physical, and social dimensions. This emphasis on comprehensive human formation distinguishes tarbiyah as a uniquely robust foundation for Islamic schooling, one that addresses both worldly responsibilities and spiritual aspirations. As such, tarbiyah may be understood not merely as a method but as the ultimate aim of Islamic education and schooling. For Islamic schools, this insight calls for curricula and pedagogical and assessment approaches grounded in tarbiyah’s ethos—fostering character, ethical reasoning, and spiritual awareness while equipping learners to navigate contemporary challenges and contribute meaningfully to society.

However, this study has certain limitations that should be acknowledged. Although the Arabic- and English-language literature reviewed offers important perspectives, it does not represent the full linguistic diversity of the Muslim world. Future research could explore the meaning and scope of tarbiyah in the literature written in other languages, such as Turkish, Urdu, or French. Another limitation of this study is its exclusive reliance on the existing Arabic and English literature, without directly examining the perspectives of scholars and experienced practitioners on the meaning, scope, and application of tarbiyah. Future research could adopt a qualitative approach to explore these perspectives through interviews and/or focus groups. Lastly, a systematic literature review in both Arabic and English may help trace the historical evolution of tarbiyah in terms of its meaning and application.

Despite the above limitations, the findings of this research are promising. This deeper and more nuanced understanding of tarbiyah can have important implications for Islamic schools. It can serve as overarching framework that can assist schools in achieving their primary/purposive aims, thereby forming the basis for renewed “measures” of success—beyond narrow neoliberal or positivist “measures”. It can be adopted as a foundational framework, integrating intellectual, spiritual, moral, social, and physical development as the foundation for an educational praxis and for informing purpose, coherence, and alignment across educational practices. Unlike narrowly defined concepts such as taʿlīm or taʾdīb, tarbiyah is holistic, ensuring that growth across all dimensions occurs harmoniously. Educators can also benefit from Islamic Teacher Education founded on tarbiyah that may help prepare educators for a praxis that delivers taʿlīm, tadrīs, and taʾdīb in an interconnected way, reflecting the synergistic nature of tarbiyah. Training should emphasise the spiritual, moral, intellectual, and social dimensions of tarbiyah, helping educators guide learners toward balanced growth and readiness for both worldly and spiritual responsibilities. This would also demand that Islamic schools reconsider more holistic and aligned forms of assessment, and thereafter learner profiles.

By adopting tarbiyah as the framework for achieving their purposive aim, Islamic schools can graduate well-rounded individuals who embody Islamic values and are prepared to contribute positively to society. The emphasis on tarbiyah ensures students are not only knowledgeable but also ethically grounded, spiritually aware, and socially responsible.