Managing Stress During Long-Term Internships: What Coping Strategies Matter and Can a Workbook Help?

Abstract

The unique demands of teaching contribute to elevated stress levels among educators worldwide. Equipping teachers with adaptive coping skills is increasingly important. However, there is a gap in understanding which coping strategies are essential for pre-service teachers and how universities can best promote them. This study examines pre-service teachers’ coping strategies during a long-term internship and evaluates a low-threshold intervention to enhance stress management and self-care. Three seminar groups were randomly assigned to the experimental group (n = 54), while the remainder formed the control group (n = 119). The experimental group received a self-directed workbook at the start of their internship and three brief face-to-face sessions during accompanying seminars. The workbook modules and seminars guided the pre-service teachers in identifying stressors, developing coping skills, and utilizing personal resources. Data were collected before and after the 18-week internship, measuring well-being, internship-related stressors, and coping strategies. Structural equation modeling showed that positive self-instruction and rumination significantly predicted well-being at the internship’s end, reducing or increasing stress from the internship. Despite the positive response of the pre-service teachers, the workbook did not have an impact. However, the results provide clear implications for the design of future interventions in this area. This study highlights the need for universities to integrate stress management into their curricula.

1. Introduction

Teaching is undoubtedly a demanding profession, with teachers facing multiple daily stressors, resulting in burnout rates exceeding those in many other professions (García-Carmona et al., 2019). Teachers must manage these stressors and use personal resources and coping strategies to remain satisfied and healthy. Coping refers to individuals’ cognitive, emotional, and behavioral efforts to manage stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). When job demands exceed teachers’ ability to cope or the appropriate coping skills are missing, their mental health is put at risk. This makes them vulnerable to burnout, a long-term condition resulting from chronic stress, which can eventually lead to resignation (García-Carmona et al., 2019; Woods et al., 2023). This issue not only affects teacher well-being and high turnover rates (Darling-Hammond, 2010; Dupriez et al., 2016; Wang & Hall, 2021) but also harms students’ academic performance (Braun et al., 2019; Herman et al., 2018; Klusmann et al., 2016). Thus, it is increasingly important to equip teachers with the necessary skills to manage these demands proactively, ideally as a preventive measure before they arise (Herman et al., 2020; Redín & Erro-Garcés, 2020).

School-based internships during teacher education, where pre-service teachers are exposed to real-life challenges of teaching, provide an ideal environment for early reflection and the practice of coping strategies (Gröschner & de Zordo, 2021; Squires et al., 2022). Research to date has mainly focused on in-service teachers’ well-being and coping strategies. Less is known about pre-service teachers, particularly during their teaching internships, and how best to support them. This study addresses this gap by investigating which coping strategies contribute to pre-service teachers’ occupational well-being during their placement and whether these strategies can be promoted via a low-threshold intervention in the form of a workbook.

1.1. Teacher Stress, Coping, and the Need for Intervention

The teaching profession presents unique demands that require teachers to develop specific coping skills to maintain their well-being and job satisfaction (Iancu et al., 2018; McCarthy et al., 2016).

Stress in teaching can arise from various sources, including workload, time constraints, large class sizes, pupil behavior, role conflicts, lack of breaks, work–life imbalance, colleague conflicts, and insufficient support (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2016). Teachers often experience nervousness and cognitive stress, such as the inability to switch off after work (Tuerktorun et al., 2020). Some studies indicate that female teachers and early-career teachers are particularly at risk of developing mental health problems (Carroll et al., 2022; Dicke, 2016; Lau et al., 2005). Consequently, there is a concerning trend of decreasing numbers of young people entering the teaching profession or leaving it prematurely (Nguyen & Springer, 2023; Weldon, 2018). Calls for policy change are therefore justified and warrant increased attention. However, teacher stress is not solely dictated by working conditions but also by individual perceptions, cognitive appraisals, coping strategies, and available resources (Beltman et al., 2011; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Rudow, 1994).

Teachers are not only passive victims of their stressful working conditions. Adaptive coping can act as a buffer against the negative consequences of stress, such as burnout or physical complaints (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). The different ways of coping are as varied as the people they affect. Coping strategies generally fall into two categories: problem-focused coping, which targets the source of stress through strategies such as time management or seeking information and support, and emotion-focused coping, which manages emotional reactions through relaxation techniques or cognitive reappraisal (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). While problem-focused coping is often associated with lower distress, the current literature emphasizes that a variety of both, referred to as coping flexibility, is best (Bakker & de Vries, 2021; Kato, 2012). Coping also relates to the overarching competency of self-regulation, the ability to monitor and control emotions, thoughts, and behaviors to adapt to challenges (Compas et al., 2001). In the face of stressors, self-regulatory processes can essentially be considered to be synonymous with coping (Compas et al., 2001).

Several theoretical models explore the interaction between individual characteristics and environmental stressors in the teaching profession, highlighting the crucial role of resources in mitigating stress and supporting well-being (Cramer et al., 2018; Rudow, 1994). The Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007) posits that occupational well-being depends on a balance between job demands and available resources, with demands predicting strain while resources buffer against stress and foster job satisfaction. This framework considers coping a personal resource (Xanthopoulou et al., 2007). The AWaRE model (Hascher et al., 2021) emphasizes the importance of both individual and external resources and how these influence the selection of appropriate coping strategies, which, in turn, influence teachers’ well-being and resilience.

Baumert and Kunter’s (2013) model of teachers’ professional competence further suggests that competence extends beyond subject knowledge to include motivational orientations, personal beliefs, and self-regulatory skills. Teachers need the ability to recognize, manage and express their emotions appropriately and regulate their stress to meet professional demands and personal goals without compromising their health.

However, most universities do not mandate pre-service teachers to acquire such skills (Atkins & Rodger, 2016; Beltman et al., 2011; Schonert-Reichl et al., 2017). Curricula tend to prioritize subject knowledge and didactics over stress management. However, both pre-service and in-service teachers express the need for stress management to be part of teacher preparation programs (Squires et al., 2022; Zito et al., 2024). Fortunately, these skills are not innate but can be developed and learned, further underlining the importance of integrating them into university curricula (Corcoran & O’Flaherty, 2022; Mansfield et al., 2016). While universities face limitations in thoroughly preparing pre-service teachers for the complexities of the profession, school-based internships provide an ideal framework for addressing the real-life stressors of teaching and how to deal with them.

1.2. The School-Based Internship and Its Stressors

School-based internships offer prospective teachers a unique opportunity to immerse themselves in a real classroom environment while receiving structured guidance from universities. These placements facilitate professional growth and ease the transition into the teaching profession (Gröschner, 2012; Nawab, 2024). During this time, pre-service teachers usually spend a certain number of hours in a school. They plan and deliver their own lessons or parts of lessons, observe other teachers, and attend school events. They receive feedback and engage in reflective practice with school-based mentors and university supervisors (Fuentes-Abeledo et al., 2020; Gröschner, 2012).

While internships are extremely valuable, they expose pre-service teachers to significant stress (Chaplain, 2008; Fives et al., 2007; Ji et al., 2022; Klassen & Durksen, 2014; Kokkinos & Stavropoulos, 2016). They must balance their university coursework with school responsibilities, all while being observed and assessed by mentors and supervisors (Birchinall et al., 2019; Kokkinos & Stavropoulos, 2016). Pre-service teachers often feel immense pressure and have high expectations of themselves as they seek a sense of achievement and depend on external feedback (Klassen & Durksen, 2014; Mahmoudi, 2016). Other stressors include heavy workloads, university requirements, pupil behavior, unclear role definitions, and insufficient support from school mentors (Chaplain, 2008; Homann et al., 2024; Krawiec et al., 2020; Pan et al., 2025).

The combination of inexperience, demanding workload, and limited support make this period particularly challenging (Zito et al., 2024). However, this period also provides a crucial opportunity for pre-service teachers to develop and refine coping strategies (Cohen et al., 2013). Their stress levels are generally lower than those of fully practicing teachers and they can reflect on their experiences and improve their coping strategies within the supportive university environment (Klusmann et al., 2012). Engaging in collegial relationships with school staff and fellow student teachers provides valuable opportunities for mutual support and reflection (Le Cornu, 2009). Through this process, pre-service teachers can identify effective strategies and integrate them into their developing professional identity (Aulén et al., 2021; Squires et al., 2022). By adopting effective stress management during their internship, pre-service teachers will be better prepared to deal with both the challenges of their internship and the demands of their future careers.

1.3. Coping Strategies and Interventions During School-Based Internships

While research recognizes that internships are a challenging period for pre-service teachers, little is known about the coping strategies that may protect them from detrimental stress during this time and how these might be addressed through interventions (Gustems-Carnicer & Calderón, 2013). Research on practicing teachers suggests that well-being and stress management interventions should focus on coping strategies like cognitive restructuring, problem-solving, goal-setting, social support, emotional regulation, and mindfulness (Bardach et al., 2022; Li Sanchez & Schwinger, 2024; Mattern, 2012; Oliveira et al., 2021; Roeser et al., 2022; Schaarschmidt & Kieschke, 2007; Wagner et al., 2024; Wang & Hall, 2018). Similarly, research with pre-service teachers highlights the benefits of mental detachment, cognitive reappraisal, self-compassion, and mindfulness (Birchinall et al., 2019; Braun & Hooper, 2024; Varol et al., 2023). Given the complexity and diversity of teachers and pre-service teachers, as well as their well-being and perception of stress, interventions must be equally multifaceted and adaptable. However, according to Vo and Allen (2022), some standards can be recommended: voluntary participation, multimodal approaches, context-specific design, group format, professional facilitation, and weekly sessions. Other recommendations suggest that stress management interventions should foster pre-service teachers’ sense of responsibility and agency within their professional environment. While acknowledging external factors, it is crucial to empower them to actively manage stressors, recognize their influence and understand the interplay between their actions and the broader professional context (Dewhurst et al., 2020; Mansfield et al., 2016; Väisänen et al., 2018). This aligns with promoting a ‘growth mindset’, which fosters the belief that becoming a competent and resilient teacher is a learnable process (Bardach et al., 2022; Nalipay et al., 2022). Further, programs should combine psychoeducation with practical techniques and address both the strengths and weaknesses of pre-service teachers, providing a holistic approach to stress management (Çelebi et al., 2014; Kaluza, 1997; Karing & Beelmann, 2016; Pieter & Wolf, 2014; Rust et al., 2009).

While pre-service teachers may benefit from coping strategies and interventions similar to those used by practicing teachers, they represent a distinct group that requires targeted research. The present study examines different coping strategies pre-service teachers use during their internships and how they relate to occupational well-being. This association is framed within the Job Demands–Resources model, which suggests that both resources and coping strategies can mitigate symptoms of negative strain while enhancing positive outcomes in a work context. In doing so, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of the coping strategies that matter for pre-service teachers and should, therefore, be promoted in the context of school-based placements.

1.4. The Intervention and the Present Study

This study also examines a low-threshold intervention consisting of a self-directed workbook on self-care and stress management. It is complemented with additional face-to-face sessions designed for pre-service teachers during their long-term internship. While the use of self-directed workbooks is widespread in therapeutic settings, their empirical investigation for supporting the mental well-being of pre-service teachers remains limited. Such workbooks are easy to use and implement, which is helpful during the time-consuming period of long-term internships. The workbook is based on established stress theories and empirically proven methods of dealing with stress and the criteria of Vo and Allen (2022). Additionally, it aligns with the AWaRE model (Hascher et al., 2021), which highlights that fostering self-awareness and proactive coping strategies can enhance teachers’ ability to navigate stressors effectively. Given the novelty of this area of research, the study takes an exploratory approach to test whether a self-directed workbook can support pre-service teachers’ stress management and barriers to and facilitators of pre-service teachers’ engagement with the workbook.

By investigating coping strategies that support the well-being of pre-service teachers during their long-term internship and simultaneously evaluating a low-threshold intervention tailored to this period and target group, this study aims to provide insights into which coping strategies universities should promote during this phase and how this could be carried out.

1.5. Research Questions

The present study aims to explore the following research questions:

(1)

Coping strategies and occupational well-being

(a)

How prominent are pre-service teachers’ occupational well-being, their coping strategies, and their experience of internship-related stressors at the beginning and end of their long-term internship?

(b)

How do occupational well-being and coping strategies evolve during the long-term internship?

(2)

Predictive role of coping strategies

To what extent do pre-service teachers’ coping strategies for stress management predict their occupational well-being and experience of internship-related stressors during their long-term internship?

(3)

Perceived usefulness of the workbook

How useful do pre-service teachers perceive a self-directed workbook on stress management and self-care during their long-term internship?

(4)

Engagement with the workbook

(a)

To what extent did pre-service teachers engage with the self-directed workbook during their long-term internship?

(b)

What content in the workbook did they find most helpful?

(c)

What factors hindered their engagement and what additional support might have facilitated greater engagement?

(5)

Effectiveness of the workbook

Can self-directed work with a workbook on stress management and self-care improve pre-service teachers’ occupational well-being and use of coping strategies during their long-term internship?

2. Methods

2.1. Participants

In 2024, all pre-service teachers on the Master’s program in Teaching at Primary and Secondary Schools at the Leuphana University in Lüneburg, Germany, took part in this study (n = 173). A proportion of 77.6% of the pre-service teachers were preparing to teach at lower school levels and 22.4% at higher levels, with an average age of 24.6 years.

Master students of Leuphana University, like those in most parts of Germany, must complete an 18-week internship. During this time, pre-service teachers spend 15 h a week in their assigned school and are involved in designing and delivering 64 teaching units in their two chosen subjects. They receive dual supervision from both the internship school and the university. Supervisors from the university visit the pre-service teachers three times for each subject and give feedback on the self-executed teaching units.

This long-term internship builds on two shorter, observation-focused internships from the Bachelor’s degree. Its primary aim is for pre-service teachers to develop and apply subject-specific teaching skills while engaging in reflective practice with mentors and university supervisors.

2.2. Procedure

Three seminar groups were randomly assigned to the experimental group (EG; n = 54), while the remaining participants formed the control group (CG; n = 119). Both groups attended mandatory biweekly seminars on teaching methods and reflective practice, which accompanied their school internship.

For the experimental group, the intervention was integrated into these seminars. Participants received the workbook and attended three 30 min face-to-face sessions during the 18-week internship. These sessions took place in early April, early May, and late May. The first session introduced the theoretical background and purpose of the workbook. Subsequent sessions expanded on the workbook’s content and included guided group discussions. While EG participants were encouraged to use the workbook, it was voluntary and not tied to any course or assessment requirements.

At the end of the internship, the workbook was also made available to the control group to ensure equitable access to the materials across the cohort.

See Figure 1 for an illustration of the study design.

2.3. The Intervention

The intervention consisted of a 38-page workbook designed to promote stress management and self-care strategies in pre-service teachers. It was developed on the basis of established stress and health theories and existing manuals on stress management and self-care for practicing teachers (e.g., Eckert & Tarnowski, 2017; Frick, 2015; Hillert et al., 2019).

The workbook is divided into three modules: 1. ‘Recognizing’, 2. ‘Taking Action’, and 3. ‘My Resources’, each of which is further divided into different units. The workbook combines psychoeducational parts, exercises, and self-tests. There are 25 learning units, most of which can be completed on a single page (see

Table 1. Overview of the modules and units of the workbook.

MODULE 1 RECOGNIZING	My symptoms of stress Stress and Gratitude Journal Focusing on strengths My stressors during the internship AVEM self-test Analyzing time management skills Positive and negative stress
MODULE 2 TAKING ACTION	Three ways of dealing with stress: the ABC model Systematic problem-solving and goal-setting Control beliefs and a growth mindset Questioning which personal beliefs are stress-boosters Shifting perspectives through cognitive restructuring Setting boundaries: learning to say NO Appropriate ideals Mindfulness Practical tips: How to avoid stress in school life (and during internships)? What can I change? The IF…, THEN… plan!
MODULE 3 MY RESOURCES	What can’t I change? The power of acceptance Self-complexity—How to nourish the diversity within you Having a purpose: a sense of coherence Embracing success and fostering resilience The power of a social network Recovery: my to-relax list Conclusion: What’s essential for our health when teaching (and in life)

). The first module aims to help participants recognize their personal stressors and uncover their own patterns. This understanding is then used to develop coping strategies in the second and third modules. The second module, ‘Taking Action’, introduces methods of problem-focused coping (addressing the stressors) and emotion-focused coping (managing emotional responses), with the latter explored in more detail. The third module focuses on personal resources and how to use them. In this way, pre-service teachers are encouraged to reflect on their responses to stressors, identify areas for growth, set realistic expectations for themselves and their professional context, and manage their thoughts and emotions related to stressors associated with the internship. Specific units also guide them in developing concrete strategies to reduce stress during placement.

The workbook is open-access and can be downloaded in English or German. (This publication is being processed and will be available shortly) (Supplementary Materials).

2.4. Measures

2.4.1. Occupational Well-Being

Pre-service teachers’ experience of negative strain in relation to internship experiences was measured by the emotional exhaustion subscale of the measure developed by Maslach and Jackson (1981). Emotional exhaustion is one of the three subscales of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) (along with depersonalization and professional accomplishment) and is considered the most important (Klusmann et al., 2021). The current assessment refers to the scale used in the BilWiss study (Kunter et al., 2016), from which four of the nine items were taken. At the pre-test, which was before the start of the internship, the pre-service teachers were asked to answer the questions in relation to their studies, and at post-test, the items were adapted to the context of the internship. The items had to be answered using a four-point Likert scale from 1 (‘strongly disagree’) to 4 (‘strongly agree’). Example items and Cronbach’s Alpha of all measures are shown in

Table 2. Overview of scales used with example items and reliabilities at both measurement points.

Scale	Example Items	Nr. of Items	α at T1	α at T2
Occupational well-being
Engagement	- At the internship, I feel bursting with energy.	3	0.80	0.86
Emotional exhaustion	- Sometimes I feel depressed at the end of an internship day.	4	0.80	0.85
Coping strategies
Stress management Positive self-instruction Social support Rumination Relaxation	If I have been affected by something or someone during my studies/internship, if I have been upset or out of balance… - … I say to myself, you can handle it. (1) - … I ask someone for advice on how I should behave. (2) - … I cannot get the situation out of my head for a long time. (3) - … I systematically try to relax. (4)	12	0.76	0.80
Self-care behavior	- I take a strategic approach to self-care	12	0.77	0.78
Internship-related stressors
School work and organization	- Insufficient support from the school	5	x	0.80
2. Behavior of the students	- Disruptive behavior by students	4	x	0.77
3. Insecurities about own professional behavior	- Uncertainty about professional suitability	3	x	0.75
4. University work and organization	- Time demands for lesson preparation	4	x	0.61
Training Evaluation	- Participating in the intervention is very useful for my internship. (reaction) - I learned a lot of new things during the intervention. (learning)	10	x	0.92

.

As a counterpart, positive strain was measured using the ultra-short version (UWES-3) of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale developed by Schaufeli et al. (2003). Schaufeli et al. (2017) demonstrated that the UWES-3 is a reliable and valid measure of work engagement, making it a viable alternative to the longer nine-item version. The three items were adapted to either the context of the teaching study for the pre-test or the context of the internship for the post-test. The items had a four-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (‘very rarely’) to 4 (‘very often’).

2.4.2. Coping Strategies

Coping for stress management was measured using four subscales of the stress-coping-inventory (SVF120) (Erdmann & Janke, 2008). This instrument measures dispositional coping by asking participants to rate the likelihood of responding in a certain way when faced with a stressor. Four subscales of the SVF were used to obtain data on how participants responded to stressors: positive self-instruction, social support, rumination, and relaxation. Each subscale consists of 4 items to be answered on a four-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (‘very rarely’) to 4 (‘very often’). The four items of each subscale were adapted to the context of the study for the pre-test and the context of the internship for the post-test.

The shortened version of the Marburg Self-Regulation Questionnaire for Teachers (MSR-T) by Li Sanchez and Schwinger (2023) was used to assess self-care behavior. The questionnaire asks about four relevant domains in the context of teaching. For the purpose of this study, the context of self-care was used, with 12 items asking about adaptive self-regulation skills to plan, monitor, and reflect one’s self-care behavior. The response format was a four-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (‘almost never’) to 4 (‘almost always’). The Work-related Behavior and Experience Pattern (AVEM by Schaarschmidt & Fischer, 1997) is commonly used to assess self-regulation in the context of work and health. The advantage of the newly developed MSR-T is that it emphasizes modifiable strategies rather than stable personality traits. This makes it easier to make feasible recommendations about which strategies should be promoted.

2.4.3. Internship-Related Stressors

Based on the studies by Krawiec et al. (2020) and Homann et al. (2024), 17 items were used to measure the internship-related stressors. For each of the 17 items, the following question was asked: ‘To what extent do you feel stressed by (items 1–17)?’. The response format for all items ranged from 1 (‘does not apply at all’) to 4 (‘fully applies’). An exploratory factor analysis via Mplus extracted 4 factors: 1. School work and organization. 2. The behavior of the students. 3. Insecurities about own professional behavior. 4. University work and organization. Example items of each factor are displayed in Table 2. Since the internship stressors were specifically related to the internship experience, they were only assessed at the second time point.

2.4.4. Evaluation of the Intervention

For the overall perception of the intervention, the Questionnaire for Professional Training Evaluation (Grohmann & Kauffeld, 2013) was used, with 10 items ranging from 1 to 4. This training evaluation uses the four levels developed by Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006): reaction, learning, behavior, and results. The present study used two items for each of these levels. Items had to be answered on a four-point Likert scale from 1 (‘strongly disagree’) to 4 (‘strongly agree’). Additionally, the present study’s authors added three self-developed items on whether the content and structure of the workbook were logical to follow and understandable.

For research question 4a, about the extent to which pre-service teachers engaged with stress management and self-care covered in the workbook, the EG was asked on how much they completed of the workbook (four-point Likert scale from ‘not at all’ to ‘more than 75%’) and when they worked with it, how much time they spent on it (four-point Likert scale from ‘no time’ to ‘45–60 min’).

To address research questions 4b and c, we designed response options aligned with the workbook, allowing participants to select the units of the workbook they perceived as helpful and mark factors that hindered or would have supported their engagement. The corresponding items for question 4c and results are presented in Figure 4.

For an overview of all measures used in this study, see Table 2.

2.5. Statistical Analysis

Statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS 29 and MPlus version 8 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2017). Descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviations, were calculated for research questions 1a, 3, and 4a–c (see

Table 3. Descriptive statistics.

Measurement Point	T1				T2
Scale:	N	Range	Mean	Std. Deviation	N	Mean	Std. Deviation
Occupational well-being:
Emotional exhaustion	189	1–4	2.09	0.65	174	2.07	0.73
Engagement	189	1–4	2.10	0.61	174	2.57	0.77
Coping strategies
Positive self-instruction	186	1–4	2.94	0.56	173	2.93	0.60
Social support	186	1–4	2.68	0.78	173	2.90	0.79
Rumination	186	1–4	2.80	0.86	173	2.70	0.83
Relaxation	186	1–4	2.23	0.71	173	2.15	0.72
Self-care behavior	188	1–4	2.77	0.43	173	2.80	0.44
Internship-related stressors
School-work and organization	-	1–4	-	-	174	1.85	0.73
Behavior of the students	-	1–4	-	-	173	1.73	0.60
Insecurities about own professional behavior	-	1–4	-	-	173	1.93	0.70
University work and organization	-	1–4	-	-	174	2.55	0.54

). To address research question 1b, which examined the development of coping strategies, internship-related stressors, and occupational well-being over the course of the internship, a paired-sample t-test with repeated measures was conducted. Given the exploratory nature of this question, a two-tailed p-value was analyzed and interpreted.

Latent intercorrelations and two path analyses for question 2 were performed to examine the association between coping strategies and occupational well-being and experience of internship-related stressors during their internship. For this analysis, the survey conducted at the second time point was used as it related to the participants’ experiences during the internship. Structural equation modeling allows regression analyses to be specified at the latent level and has the advantage of explicitly accounting for measurement error for independent and dependent variables (Geiser, 2011). Missing values were accounted for by using full information maximum likelihood (FIML). The two path models were developed based on the Job Demands–Resources model, with coping strategies conceptualized as personal resources and serving as predictor variables. Internship-related stressors, emotional exhaustion, and engagement were included as criterion variables, representing negative and positive strain, respectively. To address potential multicollinearity among the independent variables, the latent intercorrelations of the variables measured at the end of the internship were computed (see

Table 4. Latent correlations of variables at T2.

	Engagement	Emotional Exhaustion	Positive Self-Instruction	Social Support	Rumination	Relaxation	School-Work and Organization	Behavior of the Students	Insecurities About Own Professional Behavior	University Work and Organization
Engagement	-	−0.78 ***	0.39 ***	0.17 *	−0.16 *	0.08	−0.72 ***	−0.19 *	−0.33 ***	−0.37 ***
2. Emotional exhaustion	-	-	−0.40 ***	−0.153	0.37 ***	−0.11	0.76 ***	0.22	0.49 ***	0.74 ***
3. Positive self-instruction	-	-	-	0.31 ***	0.51 ***	0.27 **	−0.35 ***	−0.28 **	−0.50 ***	−0.37 ***
4. Social support	-	-	-	-	0.07	0.33 ***	−0.14	−0.12	−0.21 *	−0.08
5. Rumination	-	-	-	-	-	−0.23 **	0.23 **	0.19 *	0.46 ***	0.29 **
6. Relaxation	-	-	-	-	-	-	−0.07	−0.15	−0.26	−0.22
7. School-work and organization	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	0.16	0.35 ***	0.40 **
8. Behavior of the students	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	0.48 ***	0.17
9. Insecurities about own professional behavior	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	0.38 ***
10. University work and organization	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-

*** = p < 0.001, ** = p < 0.01, * = p < 0.05.

). None of the correlations among the independent latent variables exceeded 0.51, indicating that multicollinearity is unlikely to pose an issue, in line with the criteria outlined by Barbeau et al. (2019). To improve model fit, correlations between the error terms of two items within the same construct were allowed in the following cases: SVF7 with SVF8, SVF7 with fSVF9, MBI1 with MBI 2, MBI1 with MBI3, Stressor2 with Stressor3, Stressor17 with Stressor18, Stressor14 with Stressor 16, and Stressor15 with Stressor16. In addition, intercorrelations between the independent variables and between the dependent variables were estimated. The model fits are Model 1: χ² (132) = 157.135, p = 0.067, CFI = 0.984, TLI = 0.980, RMSEA = 0.033, and SRMR = 0.049; and Model 2: χ² (317) = 441.073, p = < 0.05, CFI = 0.930, TLI = 0.917, RMSEA = 0.047, and SRMR = 0.068.

The fifth research question examined whether improvements in the use of coping strategies and occupational well-being (measured by emotional exhaustion and engagement) would be observed in the experimental group from the beginning (T1) to the end (T2) of the internship following the intervention. In contrast, no changes were expected in the control group over the same period. To test this, seven multiple regression analyses were conducted with self-care behavior, with the four different coping strategies for stress management and occupational well-being as dependent variables. The extent to which participants completed the workbook (not at all, less than 25%, 25–50%, 50–75%, more than 75%) served as the predictor variable. Baseline scores for all dependent variables were included as covariates to control for pre-existing differences. All analyses were conducted at a significance level of p < 0.05. The effect sizes of the regression models were assessed using R².

3. Results

3.1. Research Question 1: Coping Strategies and Occupational Well-Being

Latent intercorrelations and two path analyses for question 2 were performed to examine the association. The descriptive statistics are shown in Table 3. On average, emotional exhaustion was relatively low before the internship (M = 2.09, SD = 0.64) and at the end of the internship (M = 2.07, SD = 0.73). Engagement was also relatively low before the placement (M = 2.10, SD = 0.61), but increased significantly with a large effect (t = −8.44, p < 0.001, n = 170, r = 0.54; Cohen, 1988), with the pre-service teachers experiencing higher engagement towards the end of the internship (M = 2.60, SD = 0.77).

On average, the pre-service teachers appeared to be able to self-regulate their self-care prior to entering the internship (M = 2.77, SD = 0.43) and also engaged in self-care during the internship (M = 2.80, SD = 0.44). Similarly, the stress management skills of positive self-direction and social support were also relatively high at both points in time, with social support increasing significantly from before (M = 2.67, SD = 0.78) to the end of the internship (M = 2.89, SD = 0.80), with a moderate effect (t = −4.28, p < 0.001, n = 167, r = 0.32; Cohen, 1988). In contrast, pre-service teachers do not use cognitive distancing (as the reserve to rumination) and relaxation as a means of coping with stress before and during the internship.

The internship-related stressors are also reported at a rather low level, except for the stressors related to university work and organization (M = 2.55, SD = 0.54).

3.2. Research Question 2: Predictive Role of Coping Strategies

Engagement during the internship was significantly positively correlated with the coping strategies of positive self-instruction (r = 0.39, p < 0.001) and social support (r = 0.17, p < 0.05) and negatively with rumination (r = −0.16, p < 0.001). It was also negatively correlated with all internship-related stressors (school work and organization, r = −0.72, p < 0.001; behavior of the students, r = −0.19, p < 0.05; insecurities about own professional behavior, r = −0.33, p < 0.001; university work and organization, r= −0.37, p < 0.001). In contrast, emotional exhaustion correlated negatively with positive self-instruction (r = −0.40, p < 0.001), positively with rumination (r = 0.37, p < 0.001), and positively with most of the internship-related stressors (school work and organization, r = 0.76, p < 0.001; insecurities about own professional behavior, r = 0.49, p < 0.001; university work and organization, r = 0.74, p < 0.001). The coping strategies of positive self-instruction and rumination were significantly associated with all of the internship-related stressors (r between −0.28 and −0.50 for positive self-instruction/r between 0.19 and 0.46 for rumination). Social support was only correlated with insecurities about one’s professional behavior (r = −0.21, p < 0.05).

To determine whether the different coping strategies for stress management predict occupational well-being and internship-related stressors, we calculated two path models, which are summarized in Figure 2 and Figure 3. The two path models differ in the dependent variables included in the analysis. The standardized beta coefficients are shown alongside the arrows and the factor loadings of the items next to the items.

In the first model, the four coping strategies accounted for 17.3% (p < 0.01) of the variance in emotional exhaustion and 15.2% (p < 0.05) of the engagement (see Figure 2). The path analysis shows that the adaptive coping strategy of positive self-instruction has a substantial predictive influence on both emotional exhaustion (β = −0.27, p < 0.05) and engagement (β = 0.39, p < 0.001). The pre-service teachers who more often faced stressors with encouraging and constructive inner dialogue experienced significantly less negative strain and more positive strain. The tendency to ruminate about work-related stressors significantly increased the experience of emotional exhaustion during the internship (β = 0.20, p < 0.05). Conversely, this means that pre-service teachers who were able to distance themselves from stress-inducing thoughts related to their internship felt less emotionally drained and overwhelmed during this time.

In the second model, the coping strategies were able to significantly predict 12.4% (p < 0.05) of the variance in ‘School work and organization’, 32,1% (p < 0.001) of ‘Insecurities about own professional behavior’, and 19.2% (p < 0.05) of the variance in ‘University work and organization’ (see Figure 3). All three areas of internship-related stress were significantly predicted by positive self-instruction (β = −0.30, p < 0.01/β = −0.31, p < 0.01/β = −0.33, p < 0.05). Insecurities about one’s own professional behavior was positively related to rumination (β = 0.28, p < 0.05).

3.3. Research Question 3: Perceived Usefulness of the Workbook

The overall reaction towards the intervention was mainly positive, with a mean score of 2.53 (SD = 0.73) on the Questionnaire for Professional Training Evaluation. Further, 94% to 97% of the participants indicated that the content of the workbook was clear, understandable and logically structured. A proportion of 75% of the EG would recommend working with the workbook to other pre-service teachers.

3.4. Research Question 4: Engagement with the Workbook

For question 4a, measures of frequencies were considered. A proportion of 35.2% of the EG did not work with the workbook at all and 16.7% completed less than 25% of it. A proportion of 25.9% completed between 25% and 50%, 18.5% completed 50% to 75%, and the remaining 3.7% completed more than 75% of the workbook. Regarding the question about how much time they on average spent with the workbook, the most common response was ‘no time spent’ (37.7%), which represents the proportion of pre-service teachers who decided not to work with the workbook at all. This was followed by ‘less than 15 min’ (32.1%) and ‘approximately 15 to 30 min’ (26.4%). Only a small fraction of the respondents spent between 30 and 60 min (3.8%) working with the workbook. Of the people who used the workbook, 83% used it for 1–2 days per week and one person worked with it for 5–6 days, while the remaining ones probably only worked with it during the seminar.

In response to question 4b, the EG most frequently cited content about reflecting on personal stress behavior (recognizing what personal stress symptoms are and whether the stressors of the internship are external or internal), focusing on personal strengths and setting boundaries. Question 4c, which addressed the factors that hindered the participating pre-service teachers from engaging with the workbook, identified time constraints as the primary barrier. This was followed by perceptions of the workbook as an additional workload and intentions to complete it in the future. The results regarding factors that could have encouraged greater engagement with self-care and personal stress management techniques are presented in Figure 4.

3.5. Research Question 5: Effectiveness of the Workbook

The seven multiple regression analyses found no effect of the frequency of use on occupational well-being (emotional exhaustion and engagement) self-care behavior and the four coping strategies for stress management at the follow-up measurement (see

Table 5. (a) Multiple regression analysis predicting occupational well-being and self-care behavior at T2 based on frequency of workbook use. (b) Multiple regression analysis predicting coping strategies at T2 based on frequency of workbook use.

(a)
Predictor	Criterion
	Engagement				Emotional exhaustion								Self-care behavior
	Model 1		Model 2		Model 1				Model 2				Model 1		Model 2
	β	SE	β	SE	β	SE			β		SE		β	SE	β	SE
Step 1
Baseline measure at T1	0.44 ***	0.09	0.45 ***	0.09	0.44 ***	0.08			0.44 ***		0.08		0.53 ***	0.07	0.53 ***	0.07
Step 2
Frequency of use			−0.03	0.04					0.05		0.04				−0.03	0.02
R2	0.19 ***		0.19 ***		0.19 ***				0.19 ***				0.28 ***		0.28 ***
Note: *** p < 0.001; multicollinearity statistics: 0.99 < tolerance < 1.00, 1.00 < VIF < 1.009
(b)
Predictor	Criterion
	Positive self-instruction	Social support	Rumination	Relaxation
	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2	Model 1	Model 2
	β	SE	β	SE	β	SE	β	SE	β	SE	β	SE	β	SE	β	SE
Step 1
Baseline measure at T1	0.37 ***	0.08	0.37 ***	0.08	0.55 ***	0.07	0.55 ***	0.07	0.51 ***	0.06	0.51 ***	0.07	0.50 ***	0.07	0.50 ***	0.07
Step 2
Frequency of use			0.05	0.03			0.12	0.04			0.03	0.04			−0.02	0.04
R2	0.14 ***		0.14 ***		0.30 ***		0.31 ***		0.25 ***		0.25 ***		0.25 ***		0.24 ***
Note: *** p < 0.001; multicollinearity statistics: 0.99 < tolerance < 1.00, 1.00 < VIF < 1.002

a,b). Only the baseline measures significantly predicted the dependent measures at T2.

4. Discussion

This study had two primary objectives. First, it examined how specific coping strategies influence pre-service teachers’ experience of internship-related stressors and their overall occupational well-being during their long-term internship. Second, it investigated whether these coping strategies and self-care behaviors could be enhanced through a low-threshold intervention using a self-directed workbook.

4.1. Manifestation of Coping Strategies and Occupational Well-Being

The findings indicate that pre-service teachers enter their long-term internship with a repertoire of coping skills. They report the ability to consciously monitor and plan their self-care behaviors, use positive self-instruction, and seek social support. The reliance on social support was notably higher during the internship compared to the usage during their regular studies, which reflects the collaborative nature of internships. Internships require frequent interaction with peers, university supervisors, and school mentors, fostering an environment where social support becomes essential. Contrary to previous assumptions that pre-service teachers may lack effective coping mechanisms, this study, consistent with Hohensee and Schiemann (2021), suggests that pre-service teachers generally demonstrate a proactive approach to health-related behavior. Similarly, Karing and Beelmann (2016) observed high levels of positive self-instruction in pre-service teachers.

Nevertheless, there were notable gaps in relaxation techniques and cognitive disengagement. The participants reported a below-average use of relaxation and a high tendency toward rumination. This indicates that trainee teachers find it difficult to consciously relax and disconnect from internship-related stressors, underscoring the need for targeted interventions.

Despite these gaps, the pre-service teachers’ overall level of exhaustion during the internship was relatively low, while their engagement increased significantly over the 18-week internship. This suggests that practical experience generally enhances motivation and commitment. Building on previous research, the data indicate that pre-service teachers are generally satisfied during their internships (Bruns et al., 2021; Darge et al., 2018; Ji et al., 2022; Krawiec et al., 2020; Kücholl et al., 2019). This pattern is also reflected in the measurement of the internship-related stressors. Most stressors, like pupil behavior, school-related tasks, and insecurities about one’s professional behavior were reported at low levels. However, stress related to university requirements was significantly higher and corresponds with research implying that stress during internships is mainly due to the overall structure and workload of the internship (Homann et al., 2024; Krawiec et al., 2020). This raises the question of whether efforts to improve well-being should focus on adjusting structural conditions or strengthening pre-service teachers’ coping strategies. This issue is directly tied to the second research aim.

4.2. The Impact of Cognitive Coping Strategies

Cognitive strategies, in the form of positive self-instruction and rumination, emerged as key determinants of pre-service teachers’ occupational well-being and their experiences of internship-related stressors. Cognitive coping strategies involve the deliberate modification of attitudes and evaluations in response to stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Pre-service teachers who effectively used positive self-talk to manage stressors remained more motivated and experienced less emotional exhaustion. The critical importance of this cognitive coping strategy was further underscored by its association with specific internship-related stressors. Positive self-instruction mitigated stress from school work and organizational challenges, personal insecurities about professional competence, and university-work. The inability to mentally detach from negative, stressful situations was associated with higher emotional exhaustion among the pre-service teachers. This strategy was also associated with tendencies to doubt one’s professional aptitude. The importance of psychological detachment for teacher’s occupational health is well documented (Tuerktorun et al., 2020; Varol et al., 2021). While in-service teachers frequently complain about the amount of work, this study and previous research show that pre-service teachers face similar stress related to workload (Squires et al., 2022). Varol et al. (2023) showed how the experience of a high workload during a teaching internship was related to continuous rumination about the internship. Against this backdrop, and given that rumination has been shown to increase emotional exhaustion in this and other studies, it is imperative to equip pre-service teachers with strategies to consciously detach from work-related thoughts. Mindfulness and techniques for setting boundaries are proven to be efficient strategies for psychological detachment (Karabinski et al., 2021). In addition, Varol et al. (2023) highlight the importance of mentor feedback in supporting the psychological detachment of pre-service teachers during their placements. Constructive feedback, focusing on performance rather than the individual and emphasizing growth and positive aspects, can help to reduce emotional exhaustion and help them to switch off mentally. On-site supervision by internship schools plays a key role, as mentors provide professional guidance and support the management of workload and emotional well-being (Ji et al., 2022; Pan et al., 2025).

The present results align with the limited research on pre-service teachers’ coping mechanisms, highlighting cognitive reappraisal’s central role in dealing with stress (Braun & Hooper, 2024; Varol et al., 2023). Braun and Hooper (2024) identified cognitive reappraisal, self-compassion, and mindfulness as the most significant predictors of occupational health among pre-service teachers. Cognitive reappraisal, which involves regulating emotions by altering the interpretation of situations, is closely related to positive self-instruction. Both strategies focus on reshaping thought patterns to increase control and reduce negativity. Also, both strategies support psychological detachment by reframing stressors as less urgent or critical, thereby reinforcing detachment through affirmations that prevent rumination.

Research from several countries indicates that pre-service teachers recognize the need to integrate stress management into their training (Böke et al., 2024; Chan et al., 2025; Squires et al., 2022; Zito et al., 2024). This is particularly important given the lack of emotional and stress-related coping skills among pre-service teachers (Corcoran & Tormey, 2012; Dekeyser et al., 2025). However, as evidenced by this and other studies, pre-service teachers already demonstrate an awareness of their mental health and recognize its importance. This awareness provides a solid basis for the further development of targeted interventions. While there is a global trend towards an increased emphasis on mental well-being and stress management in teacher education, research on effectively integrating these strategies into practical phases remains scarce. This study is a first step toward addressing this gap.

4.3. Effectiveness of the Workbook Intervention

Although working independently with the workbook during the internship had several advantages, particularly in terms of feasibility, and the intervention was generally well received, the combination of the workbook and three face-to-face sessions did not improve the work-related well-being or coping behavior. The workbook was not specifically designed to target the coping strategies examined in this study. Instead, it covered a wide range of coping approaches, with a particular emphasis on self-care, which was intended to be reflected in the improved coping behavior of the experimental group. The lack of effect may be partly due to floor effects, the small sample size of the experimental group and, most importantly, the frequency of use and the fact that completing the workbook was unaccompanied and voluntary. Only a quarter of the respondents dealt with more than half of the workbook’s contents and almost all of them only worked with it about one day a week. The short processing time was intentional, as the aim was to provide low-threshold access with easy-to-process and understandable content. However, the low level of engagement is not surprising given that participation was voluntary and many pre-service teachers perceived the workbook as an additional burden. The pre-service teachers particularly valued the workbook units on identifying stressors and related symptoms, recognizing personal strengths and the unit on ‘setting boundaries’ and ‘learning to say no’. These issues are particularly relevant during the long-term internship, which, after the shorter practical phases of the study program, is the first real opportunity for pre-service teachers to confront the everyday stressors of teaching and to experience themselves in the role of a teacher. At this stage, they are often not fully aware of their individual stress responses. Developing deeper self-awareness—by learning to recognize personal stress reactions, identifying specific stressors, and understanding one’s own strengths as valuable resources—remains a crucial developmental task (Böke et al., 2024).

The participants in the experimental group rated the workbook as positive and helpful, especially in learning something new about themselves and deriving practical actions. The ease of integrating the workbook into daily internship routines is crucial, given that pre-service teachers often complain about their workload. Consistent with previous studies, the current study indicates that pre-service teachers are willing to engage in stress management training if it does not add to their workload (Squires et al., 2022; Zito et al., 2024). However, many pre-service teachers expressed a desire to continue using the workbook, suggesting that its potential benefits may become more apparent over time, particularly during the critical transition into the profession.

4.4. Practical Implications

The results of the fourth research question provide direct practical implications and point out the demanding and time-consuming nature of internship periods. Pre-service teachers must balance university coursework and school responsibilities, leaving little time to focus on self-care and stress management. Effective stress management requires maturity and experience, as individuals learn that dedicating time to self-care ultimately enhances relaxation and efficiency. However, voluntarily completing a self-care workbook may feel like an additional burden and is likely to be neglected during such a challenging period. Therefore, self-care and stress management should be integrated as a mandatory component of the university curriculum. This would ensure that highly stressed pre-service teachers, who may lack the time and resources to prioritize self-care, receive the necessary support. This contrasts with the proposals of Vo and Allen (2022). However, their proposal for voluntary training was based on surveys of practicing teachers. Prospective teachers require a different motivation, as the benefits of adaptive coping strategies may not be as obvious, given their lack of exposure to real professional stress. From a preventive standpoint, it is essential to introduce stress management training before stress levels become overwhelming. Therefore, a mandatory introduction to stress management content is a viable option. In addition, addressing complex personal issues, such as control beliefs, personal belief systems, and cognitive restructuring, is most effective when facilitated by professional trainers and explored with peers. Structured professional support and group-based work can help participants to internalize and apply coping strategies more effectively (Vo & Allen, 2022). The face-to-face sessions that accompanied the workbook in this study were primarily used to explain theoretical foundations and probably provided too little opportunity for meaningful peer exchange.

Additionally, school-based mentors should support pre-service teachers’ professional development and mental well-being. Universities should ensure that mentors receive proper training in providing constructive feedback while emphasizing the importance of being emotionally available, appreciative, and supportive of interns (Izadinia, 2016; Mena et al., 2017; Zito et al., 2024).

Based on the recommendations of Vo and Allen (2022), it is helpful to deal with stress management and self-care on a regular weekly basis, which a compulsory weekly seminar could also ensure. From a preventative point of view, it is also advisable to introduce these topics before the start of the internship, as pre-service teachers typically have greater cognitive and time resources at this stage, allowing them to enter the placement better prepared. However, it is equally important to continue this process throughout the placement. This allows for the direct application of learned strategies in real classroom situations, while also providing opportunities for reflection and peer discussion in seminars. A digitalized version of the workbook content could also offer several advantages over the paper–pencil format (Mansfield et al., 2020). Videos, animations, and interactive quizzes could increase engagement, while guided relaxation or mindfulness exercises could be provided via audio or video, allowing for flexible and repeated use. In addition, features such as forums or chats can facilitate social exchange, possibly anonymously, helping to overcome fears of self-disclosure.

Any psychological intervention, whether integrated into seminars, presented as a workbook or offered in digital form, must be based on a strong theoretical framework. The present findings and workbook can serve as a basis for developing university seminars or online platforms. Pre-service teachers should be supported in identifying their unique stress patterns, which are often complex and multifaceted. Developing this awareness will enable them to develop personalized coping strategies tailored to their individual characteristics, increasing the likelihood of consistent and effective implementation. The workbook can provide a basis for this, but it should be used in a more structured manner in light of the results presented.

4.5. Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research

This study has several limitations that need to be taken into account. First, all measures relied on self-reports from one university in Germany. Also, due to the small sample size of the experimental group, differences might not have had the chance to become significant. This study should be replicated with a larger sample size in more locations outside of Germany and be complemented with interviews and, ideally, objective measures of stress experiences (e.g., heart rate and blood pressure). Adding qualitative interviews would offer more detailed findings, which will help to understand the psychological needs of pre-service teachers and the relationship between occupational well-being and their coping strategies. This relationship was tested via a cross-sectional design, which limits interpretations in terms of causality. Though the proposed direction of the relationship of the researched factors was based on the scientifically and theoretically well-founded JD-R model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007), a reciprocal relationship can also be assumed. It would be helpful to assess stress and measures of occupational well-being more often through the course of the internship in order to better understand this complex interplay. Also, follow-up measures should be added to assess long-term benefits.

Further, it has to be noted that the three face-to-face sessions were conducted by one of the authors, which presents a potential experimenter bias and impacts the generalizability and reliability of the study. Also, the present study only investigated a limited range of coping strategies and self-care behaviors, which does not represent the actual spectrum of how pre-service teachers deal with stressors during their internship. Another limitation is the fact that the engagement with the workbook happened voluntarily and a substantial amount decided not to work with it, or only to a very small degree. Thus, pre-service teachers who felt particularly stressed and could have benefited the most from the workbook did not use it because they perceived it as an additional stressor.

5. Conclusions

This study highlights the critical role of cognitive strategies in enhancing pre-service teachers’ well-being and helping them cope with internship-related stressors through empowering self-affirmations and deliberate cognitive distancing. The identified strategies align with previous research emphasizing that cognitive flexibility and a diverse repertoire of coping mechanisms are essential for adapting to and navigating demanding occupational situations (Braun & Hooper, 2024; Väisänen et al., 2018). While pre-service teachers already demonstrate an awareness of self-care, areas such as relaxation and cognitive distancing require further development. Overall, pre-service teachers should be supported in recognizing that active coping, conscious management, and reflection on work-related stressors are key components of their professional resilience. This includes recognizing that one’s experience of stress is highly subjective and that everyone plays an active role in managing it rather than merely being passively subjected to the challenging conditions of the teaching profession. The workbook introduced in this study can serve as a tool to facilitate this process.

However, it is unrealistic to expect students to do this on their own, especially during the demanding periods of their placements. Universities need to provide structured opportunities for stress management, presenting it as a source of support rather than an additional burden. Furthermore, improving individual coping skills alone is insufficient if systemic stressors within schools are not addressed (Carroll et al., 2022; Collie & Mansfield, 2022). Schools and mentors are crucial in creating a supportive environment where pre-service teachers feel comfortable discussing their mental health concerns (Ji et al., 2022; Pan et al., 2025; Zito et al., 2024). Although this study did not focus on institutional factors, future research and discussion on pre-service teachers’ mental well-being and related interventions should consider institutional characteristics and the role of mentors.

Finally, addressing stress management skills early in teacher education is essential—not only for the well-being of pre-service teachers but also in response to the growing teacher shortage and high attrition rates. Universities need to prioritize this in curriculum design to ensure sustainable, long-term improvements in teacher retention and resilience.