Effectiveness of a Training Program on the Psychological Well-Being and Self-Efficacy of Active Teachers, Controlling for Gender and Experience

Abstract

Psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy are essential dimensions for ensuring effective educational performance and high-quality teaching. Fostering these competencies in educators is key to addressing the challenges associated with the current educational system. This study evaluated the effectiveness of a training program designed to enhance these two dimensions in teachers, taking gender and years of experience as covariates. The sample included 143 primary school teachers from Alicante (Spain), with an average age of 42.4 years and a mean of 14.14 years of professional experience. Of the participants, 58.3% were women and 41.7% were men. Psychological well-being was measured using Ryff’s scale, while teacher self-efficacy was assessed with Skaalvik and Skaalvik’s scale. Using an experimental design with control and experimental groups, along with pre-test and post-test evaluations, the program’s effects were analyzed through a general linear model for repeated measures. Results showed significant improvements in psychological well-being and self-efficacy in the experimental group. Although teaching experience proved to be a significant covariate, the program was effective in controlling for this effect. These findings highlight the feasibility of designing effective training interventions to strengthen teachers’ competencies.

1. Introduction

1.1. Psychological Well-Being in Teachers

Psychological well-being is an essential component of human development, directly influencing mental health, the quality of interpersonal relationships, and individuals’ ability to have a sense of purpose in life and cope with the challenges of daily life (Dhanabhakyam & Sarath, 2023). According to Ryff (1989) and Ryff and Keyes (1995), psychological well-being is a multidimensional concept that encompasses aspects of self-acceptance, a positive relationships with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, a purpose in life, and personal growth.

Blanco and Díaz (2005) emphasized that psychological well-being is related to personal development, coping style, the ability to face life’s challenges, and the effort to achieve meaningful goals. Additionally, as per Ryan and Deci (2001), it involves achieving positive life goals. In essence, it is about feeling satisfied with oneself and life, handling the demands of the environment effectively, and finding meaning in personal experiences. There is evidence that people with high levels of psychological well-being tend to act in alignment with their interests, values, and needs (Vázquez & Hervás, 2009).

In recent years, rising stress levels and increasing work demands have posed notable challenges to individuals’ mental health and productivity (Berrocal-Aréstegui, 2023; Buitrago-Orjuela et al., 2021; Martillo-Ortegano et al., 2023; Pachón-González, 2021). This phenomenon has repercussions beyond the individual level, affecting communities and organizations, which directly impacts professional performance and the quality of work outcomes (Bansal, 2023).

In the educational context, teachers face substantial workload stress due to factors such as high job demands and relationships with other members of the educational community (Ortiz-Cuenca et al., 2024). These conditions can lead to the development of burnout syndrome, negatively affecting the psychological well-being of teachers and their ability to perform effectively (Huertes del Arco et al., 2023; Mendes-Rodrigues et al., 2020). This impact extends beyond the individual level, affecting school dynamics, as teachers’ well-being is closely linked to the quality of teaching and the classroom climate (Pinedo-Torres, 2023), factors that influence students’ academic performance directly (Guzmán-Pozo et al., 2024; Mardones-Soto, 2023), and can be improved with specific training programs focused on fostering socioemotional competencies (Pozo-Rico & Sandoval, 2020). Thus, numerous studies have highlighted that psychological well-being not only improves teachers’ quality of life but is also fundamental to the sustainability of the educational system and optimizing teaching effectiveness (Calderón-Palacio, 2023; Teles et al., 2020). Emotionally and psychologically balanced teachers are better equipped to face the challenges of their profession and to make a positive impact on their students’ learning (Acosta-Faneite, 2023). However, ensuring this balance depends not only on psychological well-being but also on addressing other key dimensions, such as teacher self-efficacy, which plays a protective role against burnout and impacts teachers’ well-being directly (Rodríguez-Chávez et al., 2024).

1.2. Teacher Self-Efficacy

Teacher self-efficacy, based on Bandura’s (1997) concept of self-efficacy within social cognitive theory, is a crucial construct for understanding how teachers face the inherent challenges of their work. It is defined as the belief in one’s ability to organize and execute the necessary actions to achieve specific goals. In the educational field, high self-efficacy is associated with increased motivation (Rodríguez et al., 2009), reduced stress and burnout (Zeng et al., 2024), and improved professional performance (Hernández-Jácquez & Ceniceros-Cázares, 2018). This is because teachers with high self-efficacy tend to use more active and effective coping strategies, allowing them to adapt effectively to the demands of their environment (Salanova et al., 2005), thus reducing any negative impact on their well-being. Furthermore, teachers with high self-efficacy are more likely to persevere in the face of challenges and implement more effective teaching strategies. These qualities not only contribute to their performance but also have a positive impact on their motivation, behavior, and job satisfaction (Lazarides et al., 2021, 2023).

1.3. Impact of Gender and Teaching Experience

Various studies have explored the influence of factors such as gender and years of teaching experience on teachers’ psychological well-being and self-efficacy, but they reported mixed results. In terms of psychological well-being, it has been found that men tend to score higher in dimensions such as self-acceptance and autonomy, while women excel in personal growth and positive relationships (Matud et al., 2019). A recent study by Redondo-Trujillo et al. (2023), based on a systematic review, identified gender, teaching experience, and age as factors associated with teachers’ psychological well-being, among others. Among the studies included in this review, the research by Akram (2019), involving university professors, found that women scored higher in positive relationships and self-acceptance. However, Campos et al. (2018) found that male university lecturers in the 61-year-old age group, and with teaching experience ranging from 11 to 21 years, exhibited higher levels of psychological well-being.

Regarding teaching self-efficacy, Guerra (2008) reported that women tend to have higher self-efficacy; however, subsequent studies found no significant gender differences (Del Valle et al., 2015; Pérez-Norambuena et al., 2023). Concerning years of experience, this variable does seem to influence self-efficacy considerably. According to Feiman-Nemser (2003) and Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2007), teachers with less experience tend to have an idealistic view of the profession, which can transform into a more realistic conception over time as they face the challenges of educational practice. In line with this, studies have reported that novice teachers tend to show lower levels of self-efficacy compared to more experienced teachers (Chan, 2008; García, 2010). For instance, Pérez-Norambuena et al. (2023) found that teachers with over 25 years of experience reported higher self-efficacy in classroom management than those with fewer than 7 years of experience. However, some researchers, such as Rodríguez-Gómez et al. (2018), did not identify significant differences in self-efficacy based on years of experience.

1.4. Training Programs: A Key Strategy for Teacher Well-Being and Self-Efficacy

In this context, the design and implementation of intervention programs aimed at promoting psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy have emerged as key strategies for enhancing teachers’ quality of life and professional performance (Martínez-Saura et al., 2024). These initiatives, often integrated into continuous professional development, aim to equip teachers with practical tools to manage stress, strengthen their emotional intelligence and resilience, and thereby improve their professional performance (Caichug-Rivera et al., 2021; Monzón et al., 2023; Rodríguez-López et al., 2023). In essence, this training serves a dual purpose: to update and improve teaching skills (Castillo-Gualda et al., 2019; Kuk et al., 2021; Pozo-Rico et al., 2020; Pozo-Rico & Sandoval, 2020) while also preparing teachers to face new challenges in an ever-evolving educational system.

Although there is growing attention paid to teachers’ well-being, there is an alarming scarcity of research and training programs particularly designed to strengthen teachers’ psychological well-being and self-efficacy. This gap is even more concerning in the post-pandemic context as the COVID-19 crisis amplified stress and burnout levels considerably among teachers, highlighting the relative insufficiency of resources to address these issues effectively (Chien-Duong et al., 2023). New demands of the educational environment, such as the transition to digital teaching and broader uncertainties within the educational system, have placed teachers in the face of unprecedented challenges that require a comprehensive and sustained approach to address them.

In this context, there is an urgent need to develop training programs that integrate psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy as central elements of intervention. These initiatives are not only essential for enabling teachers to face current and future challenges but also for fostering a healthier and more effective educational environment for both teachers and students. Furthermore, previous research has shown that it is possible to enhance a wide range of competencies in teachers through specific training programs (Castillo-Gualda et al., 2019; Gilar-Corbi et al., 2018a, 2018b; Kuk et al., 2021; Pozo-Rico et al., 2020). In particular, these interventions have shown promising results in developing key socioemotional competencies, such as resilience, and in reducing stress and burnout levels. All of this is directly related to psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy, which are the central focus of this study. These dimensions are not only crucial for the emotional health of teachers but also linked to teaching success and positive student outcomes (Calderón-Palacio, 2023; Huertes del Arco et al., 2023), highlighting the importance of integrating training into this area and evaluating its effectiveness.

However, despite progress in this area, there is a notable scarcity of research evaluating the effectiveness of such programs while also controlling for variables such as gender and years of teaching experience. These variables, while often studied in isolation, can play a key role in how training programs impact teachers’ psychological well-being and self-efficacy. Previous studies have highlighted the relationship between these dimensions and factors such as gender and teaching experience (Beltrán-Sánchez, 2023; Fu et al., 2022; Pérez-Norambuena et al., 2023; Redondo-Trujillo et al., 2023; Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007), providing a basis for including these covariables in future research, particularly in studies implementing training programs. This gap in the literature highlights the need for a more integrated approach to understanding how these characteristics impact the effectiveness of training interventions. In this context, this present study aims to close this gap by providing evidence.

Moreover, adopting an intersectional perspective on research into psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy could offer a deeper understanding of how variables such as gender and years of teaching experience interact. This approach would not only enrich the analysis of interventions but also facilitate the design of more tailored and specific training programs that meet teachers’ needs more effectively. These initiatives would address the complexities and challenges of a constantly evolving educational system, providing practical tools to strengthen teachers’ psychological well-being and self-efficacy.

In this way, training programs focused on these dimensions not only address the current demands of teachers (Delgado-Herrada & García-Horta, 2024) but also ensure a more effective educational system that aligns with the expectations of the educational community.

1.5. The Present Study

This study aims to address the need to equip teachers with key tools and strategies to help them cope with the complex emotional demands inherent in a profession with high emotional demands. To achieve this, the effectiveness of the training program EmpowerTeach: Building Well-being and Self-Efficacy (EmpowerTeach), specifically designed to enhance teachers’ psychological well-being and self-efficacy through professional development, is evaluated. This approach not only seeks to improve teachers’ technical competencies, as has traditionally been performed, but also to strengthen their emotional and personal well-being, factors that, as previous studies (Monzón et al., 2023; Rodríguez-López et al., 2023) have shown, are fundamental to optimizing teacher self-efficacy and promoting psychological well-being.

The study focuses on determining whether the intervention has a positive impact on teachers, as well as exploring whether there are differences in the program’s effectiveness when controlling for gender and years of teaching experience.

On the one hand, the training program focuses on promoting emotional intelligence and resilience among teachers; and, on the other hand, focuses on stress management through techniques and strategies to intervene early before burnout occurs. These elements emerge as fundamental pillars for teachers’ psychological well-being and self-efficacy, as recently demonstrated in the systematic review by Martínez-Saura et al. (2024), which gathered training programs for early childhood and primary education teachers, whose training approach is based on the same variables as the training program proposed in this study.

1.6. Objectives and Hypotheses

The general objective of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of the training program EmpowerTeach, designed to improve psychological well-being and self-efficacy of active primary school teachers, while analyzing the roles of gender and years of teaching experience as covariates in these outcomes.

The specific objectives are as follows:

• Objective 1: to analyze whether there is a significant increase in all factors of psychological well-being in the experimental group of teachers compared to the control group after the training.
• Objective 2: to analyze whether there is a significant increase in all factors of teacher self-efficacy in the experimental group of teachers compared to the control group after the training.
• Objective 3: to examine the effectiveness of the training program in improving psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy once the effect of the covariates of gender and years of teaching experience has been controlled for.

From these objectives, the following hypotheses are derived:

• Hypotheses 1: the implemented training program is effective in significantly improving the psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy of the experimental group compared to the control group.
• Hypothesis 2: the implemented training program is effective in significantly improving the psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy of the experimental group compared to the control group, once the effect of the covariates of gender and years of teaching experience has been controlled for.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

The sample was composed of 143 active primary school teachers from the province of Alicante (Spain). Among these, 58.3% were women and 41.7% were men. The average age of the teachers was 42.40 years (SD = 10.32). Regarding teaching experience, this ranged from 1 to 32 years, with a mean of 14.14 years (SD = 8.45).

The sample was randomly divided into two groups: 73 teachers in the experimental group and 70 in the control group. The experimental group participated in the training program EmpowerTeach, aimed at improving their psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy, while the control group received training on a different topic unrelated to either psychological well-being or teacher self-efficacy.

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Psychological Well-Being

Psychological well-being was assessed using the Ryff scale (1989), which measures 6 dimensions of psychological well-being through 39 items. The Spanish version used, validated by Pozo-Rico et al. (2023), showed high reliability with the following Cronbach’s alpha values: 0.91 for self-acceptance, 0.92 for positive relationships, 0.93 for autonomy, 0.91 for environmental mastery, 0.91 for purpose in life, and 0.92 for personal growth. Participants responded using a 6-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree). An example of an item is “I feel good when I think about what I’ve done in the past and what I expect to do in the future” (Item 17).

2.2.2. Teacher Self-Efficacy

Teacher self-efficacy was assessed using the Skaalvik and Skaalvik scale (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2007), comprising 24 items that measure 6 dimensions of teacher self-efficacy, namely, instruction effectiveness, adaptation of teaching to individual needs of students, achievement of student motivation, achievement of maintaining discipline in the classroom, ability to collaborate with other members of the educational community, and coping with challenges and personal effectiveness in dealing with change in educational contexts. The version validated by Pozo-Rico et al. (2023) demonstrated reliability with Cronbach’s alpha values ranging from 0.73 to 0.97. Responses were collected using a 7-point Likert scale (1 = not at all confident to 7 = extremely confident). An example of an item is “Controlling the situation even with the most aggressive students” (Item 9).

2.2.3. Training Program EmpowerTeach: Building Well-Being and Self-Efficacy

The program EmpowerTeach, designed specifically for the experimental group, lasted 6 weeks (30 h). Its main goal was to improve psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy, focusing on promoting emotional intelligence and resilience, and reducing stress and burnout. These variables have been identified in previous research as key factors in fostering teacher well-being (Martínez-Saura et al., 2024). All these competencies were addressed considering the main challenges of the educational environment, such as discipline, diversity, time pressure, low student motivation, conflicts with colleagues, and communication. To structure the program in an organized and coherent manner, the competencies to be developed were grouped into three main pillars of psychological well-being, teaching effectiveness, and professional development. These three pillars do not function in isolation but are continuously interrelated, reinforcing one another. Psychological well-being promotes better emotional regulation, enabling teachers to face challenges with greater confidence and resilience. In turn, higher teacher self-efficacy drives them to improve their pedagogical practices and successfully meet the demands of the educational environment, contributing to their professional development. In each module, participants engage in practical, experiential activities designed to equip them with the skills and tools necessary for their daily work.

The psychological well-being module focused on self-care and cultivating a positive mindset. Activities included educational practices to reduce stress, relaxation techniques, emotional management strategies, and personal development practices to strengthen self-esteem and resilience. Additionally, the program promoted the creation of support networks among teachers, providing spaces for peer interaction and collaboration.

The teaching effectiveness module explored strategies to enhance pedagogical practices and foster meaningful student learning. Workshops covered instructional design, formative assessment, and the integration of educational technologies. Various teaching methodologies, such as project-based learning and cooperative learning, were examined. The module also emphasized data-driven decision-making to improve instructional practices. For example, teachers conducted mini-projects focused on improving student participation and motivation using technology-enhanced instructional tools.

The professional development module centered on continuous professional growth and adaptation to evolving educational landscapes. Coaching and mentoring sessions were provided to support teachers in their professional journey. Lessons included educational leadership, effective communication, and conflict resolution. The program fostered participation in learning communities and collaborative projects.

Finally, using a blended learning approach delivered through Moodle, participants engaged in reflective exercises, case studies, and collaborative problem-solving activities to develop practical strategies tailored to their classrooms. A roadmap was provided, guiding teachers in applying learned techniques to real-world scenarios, enabling them to identify and address specific challenges effectively. Evaluation was conducted through pre- and post-training reflection, along with ongoing feedback to assess the applicability of the strategies and their impact on teaching practices. Detailed information about the program can be found in Appendix A.

2.3. Procedure

The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Alicante (UA-2021-12-09_2), ensuring that ethical standards were adhered to in the handling of data and participants’ involvement. Before beginning the research, all participants were informed about the study’s objectives and characteristics and were assured of the confidentiality of their data. All participants provided informed consent before participating.

The sample was randomly assigned to two groups: the experimental group (73 teachers) and the control group (70 teachers). Measures of psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy were collected from both groups at two points: two weeks before the intervention (pre-test) and two weeks after the intervention had concluded (post-test). The experimental group participated in the 6-week training program while the control group received alternative training focused on understanding and implementing the new educational legislation. This training aimed to familiarize participants with recent updates in policies and guidelines but did not include content related to psychological well-being or teacher self-efficacy. This distinction ensured that any observed differences in outcomes could be attributed to the specific effects of the experimental program.

2.4. Design and Data Analysis

The study used an experimental design with two groups (control and experimental) and two assessment points (pre-test and post-test).

To analyze equivalence between the groups before the intervention, a comparative analysis was conducted using Student’s t-test. Subsequently, effects of the program were analyzed using a general linear model for repeated measures, considering the dependent variable (assessment time: before and after training) as an intra-subject variable, and the group (control and experimental) as an inter-subject variable. Additionally, gender and years of teaching experience were included as covariates in the analysis. The magnitude of the effect size and power for each effect were reported. It is noteworthy that all statistical tests employed in this study adhered to a significance level of alpha < 0.05.

All analyses were carried out using version 29 of SPSS software.

3. Results

First, analysis was conducted to determine if there were significant differences in the psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy scores between the experimental and control groups, using the independent samples t-test. Results showed no significant differences between the two groups on any of the variables before the training program began with the experimental group, as

Table 1. Results of Student’s t-test for the difference in mean scores between the experimental and control groups (before training).

	Levene		Control	Experimental
Variables	F	p	M (SD)	M (SD)	t (141)	p
Psychological well-being
Self-acceptance	0.02	0.90	24.17 (6.74)	22.89 (6.99)	1.11	0.27
Positive relationships	8.81	<0.001	27.87 (7.98)	29.48 (5.27)	−1.41	0.16
Autonomy	0.00	0.99	35.69 (6.79)	35.07 (6.64)	0.55	0.58
Environmental mastery	0.01	0.91	23.77 (7.13)	22.99 (7.26)	0.65	0.52
Personal growth	0.00	0.95	27.61 (8.30)	27.22 (8.11)	0.29	0.77
Purpose in life	0.14	0.70	23.76 (7.18)	23.11 (7.33)	0.53	0.59
Teacher self-efficacy
Instruction effectiveness	0.10	0.75	14.87 (4.76)	14.30 (4.58)	0.73	0.46
Adaptation teaching	0.01	0.91	15.01 (4.74)	13.96 (5.00)	1.29	0.20
Achievement motivation	0.51	0.48	14.69 (4.94)	14.16 (4.75)	0.64	0.52
Maintain discipline	0.35	0.56	14.74 (4.77)	14.16 (4.67)	0.73	0.46
Collaborate community	0.42	0.52	14.87 (4.96)	14.03 (4.82)	1.03	0.30
Cope with change	0.04	0.83	14.59 (4.69)	14.08 (4.82)	0.63	0.53

Note. Adaptation teaching = adaptation of teaching to the individual needs of students; achievement motivation = achievement of student motivation; maintain discipline = achievement of maintaining discipline in the classroom; collaborate community = ability to collaborate with other members of the educational community; cope with change = coping with challenges and effectiveness in dealing with change in educational contexts.

shows.

The results in Table 1 indicate that the initial conditions of the participants were comparable before the intervention. This suggests that any subsequent changes in the scores of these variables could be attributed to the effect of the training program rather than to pre-existing differences between the groups.

Subsequently, to assess the assumption of homogeneity of variances and covariances, Box’s M test was conducted, which yielded the following results for each of the factors: self-acceptance (M = 129.18, F = 42.40, p < 0.001), positive relationships (M = 114.92, F = 37.72, p < 0.001), autonomy (M = 177.32, F = 58.20, p < 0.001), environmental mastery (M = 135.27, F = 44.397, p < 0.001), personal growth (M = 123.76, F = 40.62, p < 0.001), purpose in life (M = 128.04, F = 42.02, p < 0.001), instruction effectiveness (M = 205.42, F = 67.42, p < 0.001), adaptation of teaching to the individual needs of students (M = 200.61, F = 65.84, p < 0.001), achievement of student motivation (M = 210.06, F = 68.94, p < 0.001), achievement of maintaining discipline in the classroom (M = 211.17, F = 69.31, p < 0.001), ability to collaborate with other members of the educational community (M = 218.65, F = 71.76, p < 0.001), and coping with challenges and effectiveness in dealing with change in educational contexts (M = 200.82, F = 65.91, p < 0.001). This indicates that the assumption of homogeneity of covariance matrices is not met. However, the violation of this assumption has minimal impact when the groups are approximately equal in size (Hair et al., 1999). In addition, a multivariate ANOVA was performed.

Results of the interaction intra × inter showed that the program EmpowerTeach was effective in improving all variables in the experimental group compared to the control group: self-acceptance (F = 92.83, p < 0.001, η² = 0.39), positive relationships (F = 67.11, p < 0.001, η² = 0.32); autonomy (F = 79.00, p < 0.001, η² = 0.35); environmental mastery (F = 71.69, p < 0.001, η² = 0.33), personal growth (F = 76.41, p < 0.001, η² = 0.35), purpose in life (F = 64.28, p < 0.001, η² = 0.31), instruction effectiveness (F = 160.08, p < 0.001, η² = 0.53), adaptation of teaching to the individual needs of students (F = 176.64, p < 0.001, η² = 0.55), achievement of student motivation (F = 155.73, p < 0.001, η² = 0.52), achievement of maintaining discipline in the classroom (F = 152.27, p < 0.001, η² = 0.51), ability to collaborate with other members of the educational community (F = 185.48, p < 0.001, η² = 0.56), and coping with challenges and effectiveness in dealing with change in educational contexts (F = 178.05, p < 0.001, η² = 0.55). As can be seen, the effect sizes were medium-high, indicating that a considerable percentage of the change (from 31% to 55%) in the variables is due to the intervention program.

The analyses were repeated, including gender and years of teaching experience as covariates.

Table 2. Results of the inter- and intra-subject univariate ANOVA on psychological well-being factors.

Variable	Source	SS	df	MS	F	p	η2	Power
Self-acceptance	Intra	231.98	1	231.98	20.43	<0.001	0.13	0.99
	Intra × Gender	0.73	1	0.73	0.06	0.800	0.00	0.06
	Intra × Experience	173.37	1	173.37	15.27	<0.001	0.10	0.97
	Intra × Inter	1101.95	1	1101.95	97.05	<0.001	0.41	1.00
	Error Intra	1578.19	139	11.35
	Gender	8.75	1	8.75	0.20	0.652	0.00	0.07
	Experience	2734.90	1	2734.90	63.69	<0.001	0.31	1.00
	Inter	673.10	1	673.10	15.68	<0.001	0.10	0.98
	Error Inter	5968.32	139	42.94
Positive relationships	Intra	0.82	1	0.82	0.12	0.731	0.00	0.06
	Intra × Gender	0.42	1	0.42	0.06	0.804	0.00	0.06
	Intra × Experience	51.04	1	51.04	7.40	0.007	0.05	0.77
	Intra × Inter	461.89	1	461.89	67.01	<0.001	0.32	1.00
	Error Intra	958.12	139	6.89
	Gender	12.20	1	12.20	0.25	0.615	0.00	0.08
	Experience	2718.60	1	2718.60	56.63	<0.001	0.29	1.00
	Inter	1467.19	1	1467.19	30.56	<0.001	0.18	1.00
	Error Inter	6672.85	139	48.01
Autonomy	Intra	290.85	1	290.85	28.33	<0.001	0.17	1.00
	Intra × Gender	0.30	1	0.30	0.03	0.865	0.00	0.05
	Intra × Experience	344.06	1	344.06	33.52	<0.001	0.19	1.00
	Intra × Inter	928.98	1	928.98	90.50	<0.001	0.39	1.00
	Error Intra	1426.88	139	10.26
	Gender	0.65	1	0.65	0.02	0.893	0.00	0.05
	Experience	2699.38	1	2699.38	74.36	<0.001	0.35	1.00
	Inter	839.11	1	839.11	23.11	<0.001	0.14	1.00
	Error Inter	5045.66	139	36.30
Environmental mastery	Intra	300.27	1	300.27	25.89	<0.001	0.16	1.00
	Intra × Gender	4.76	1	4.76	0.41	0.523	0.00	0.10
	Intra × Experience	213.46	1	213.46	18.41	<0.001	0.12	1.00
	Intra × Inter	878.48	1	878.48	75.75	<0.001	0.35	1.00
	Error Intra	1612.01	139	11.60
	Gender	0.24	1	0.24	0.00	0.941	0.00	0.05
	Experience	3259.09	1	3259.09	74.61	<0.001	0.35	1.00
	Inter	722.22	1	722.22	16.53	<0.001	0.11	0.98
	Error Inter	6071.61	139	43.68
Personal growth	Intra	234.91	1	234.91	16.85	<0.001	0.11	0.98
	Intra × Gender	9.19	1	9.19	0.66	0.418	0.00	0.13
	Intra × Experience	295.82	1	295.82	21.22	<0.001	0.13	1.00
	Intra × Inter	1152.98	1	1152.98	82.70	<0.001	0.37	1.00
	Error Intra	1937.78	139	13.94
	Gender	12.37	1	12.37	0.27	0.635	0.00	0.08
	Experience	4707.24	1	4707.24	85.98	<0.001	0.38	1.00
	Inter	1224.89	1	1224.89	22.37	<0.001	0.14	1.00
	Error Inter	7609.87	139	54.75
Purpose in life	Intra	176.85	1	176.85	15.99	<0.001	0.10	0.98
	Intra × Gender	4.86	1	4.86	0.44	0.509	0.00	0.10
	Intra × Experience	258.61	1	258.61	23.39	<0.001	0.14	1.00
	Intra × Inter	772.59	1	772.59	69.87	<0.001	0.33	1.00
	Error Intra	1536.95	139	11.06
	Gender	0.75	1	0.75	0.02	0.896	0.00	0.05
	Experience	3234.90	1	3234.90	74.15	<0.001	0.35	1.00
	Inter	684.25	1	684.25	15.68	<0.001	0.10	0.98
	Error Inter	6064.00	139	43.63

and

Table 3. Results of the inter- and intra-subject univariate ANOVA on teacher self-efficacy factors.

Variable	Source	SS	df	MS	F	p	η2	Power
Instruction effectiveness	Intra	183.78	1	183.78	32.52	<0.001	0.19	1.00
	Intra × Gender	0.00	1	0.00	0.000	1.000	0.00	0.05
	Intra × Experience	109.64	1	109.64	19.40	<0.001	0.12	0.99
	Intra × Inter	977.94	1	977.94	173.06	<0.001	0.55	1.00
	Error Intra	185.48	139	5.65
	Gender	0.89	1	0.89	0.05	0.828	0.00	0.055
	Experience	1093.60	1	1093.60	58.06	<0.001	0.29	1.00
	Inter	826.08	1	826.08	43.85	<0.001	0.24	1.00
	Error Inter	2618.35	139	18.84
Adaptation teaching	Intra	159.72	1	159.72	24.18	<0.001	0.15	0.998
	Intra × Gender	0.97	1	0.97	0.15	0.701	0.00	0.067
	Intra × Experience	106.75	1	106.75	16.16	<0.001	0.10	0.979
	Intra × Inter	1243.18	1	1243.18	188.23	<0.001	0.57	1.00
	Error Intra	918.04	139	6.60
	Gender	3.395	1	3.39	0.17	0.680	0.00	0.07
	Experience	1286.11	1	1286.11	64.74	<0.001	0.32	1.00
	Inter	825.17	1	825.168	41.54	< 0.001	0.23	1.00
	Error Inter	2761.33	139	19.87
Achievement motivation	Intra	180.02	1	180.02	32.62	<0.001	0.19	1.00
	Intra × Gender	1.62	1	1.62	0.295	.588	0.00	0.08
	Intra × Experience	151.57	1	151.57	27.47	<0.001	0.16	1.00
	Intra × Inter	973.23	1	973.23	176.37	<0.001	0.56	1.00
	Error Intra	767.01	139	5.52
	Gender	7.39	1	7.39	0.35	0.554	0.00	0.091
	Experience	1158.96	1	1158.96	55.13	<0.001	0.28	1.00
	Inter	849.73	1	849.73	40.42	<0.001	0.22	1.00
	Error Inter	2921.82	139	21.02
Maintain discipline	Intra	145.59	1	145.59	25.02	<0.001	0.15	1.00
	Intra × Gender	6.72	1	6.72	1.15	0.284	0.01	0.19
	Intra × Experience	140.01	1	140.01	24.06	<0.001	0.15	1.00
	Intra × Inter	991.69	1	991.69	170.40	<0.001	0.55	1.00
	Error Intra	808.94	139	5.82
	Gender	0.04	1	0.04	0.00	0.961	0.00	0.05
	Experience	1101.22	1	1101.22	57.78	<0.001	0.29	1.00
	Inter	837.05	1	837.05	43.92	<0.001	0.24	1.00
	Error Inter	2649.05	139	19.06
Collaborate community	Intra	163.54	1	163.54	26.78	<0.001	0.16	1.00
	Intra × Gender	0.62	1	0.62	0.10	0.751	0.00	0.06
	Intra × Experience	101.34	1	101.34	16.59	<0.001	0.11	0.98
	Intra × Inter	1210.21	1	1210.21	198.18	<0.001	0.59	1.00
	Error Intra	848.81	139	6.11
	Gender	0.11	1	0.11	0.00	0.942	0.00	0.05
	Experience	1325.97	1	1325.97	60.80	<0.001	0.30	1.00
	Inter	905.80	1	905.80	41.54	<0.001	0.23	1.00
	Error Inter	3031.27	139	21.81
Cope with change	Intra	206.89	1	206.89	36.23	<0.001	0.21	1.00
	Intra × Gender	0.13	1	0.13	0.02	0.880	0.00	0.05
	Intra × Experience	113.68	1	113.68	19.91	<0.001	0.12	0.99
	Intra × Inter	1103.95	1	1103.95	193.33	<0.001	0.58	1.00
	Error Intra	793.70	139	5.71
	Gender	13.63	1	13.63	0.73	0.394	0.00	0.136
	Experience	1189.44	1	1189.44	63.91	<0.001	0.31	1.00
	Inter	978.58	1	978.58	52.58	<0.001	0.27	1.00
	Error Inter	2586.78	139	18.61

Note. Adaptation teaching = adaptation of teaching to the individual needs of students; achievement motivation = achievement of student motivation; maintain discipline = achievement of maintaining discipline in the classroom; collaborate community = ability to collaborate with other members of the educational community; cope with change = coping with challenges and effectiveness in dealing with change in educational contexts.

present the results obtained through univariate analysis, which evaluates the effects of the intervention program on the factors of psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy, respectively. Results showed that the scores on all evaluated factors improved significantly in the experimental group after the implementation of the program, confirming its effectiveness. In this case, the effect sizes are medium-high, indicating that a considerable percentage of the change (from 32% to 59%) in the variables is due to the intervention program. Furthermore, results indicated that the covariate of gender had no significant effect on any of the factors analyzed. In contrast, the number of years of teaching experience was found to be a significant covariate in all dimensions of psychological well-being (Table 2) and teacher self-efficacy (Table 3). However, after controlling for this covariate, all intra × inter interaction effects remained significant across all factors, even though the covariate was related to the dependent variable. In other words, the relationship between the covariate and the dependent variable did not have an impact on the effectiveness of the intervention program. This is, despite the effect of the covariate of years of experience on psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy, the intervention program proved to be significant for the development of these two aspects once the effect of the covariate was controlled for.

This was confirmed, in the multivariate ANOVA, using Wilks’ Lambda test, which showed significant variations in all the factors of psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy after the implementation of the program in the experimental group: self-acceptance (F = 20.43, η² = 0.13), positive relationships (F = 0.12, η² = 0.00); autonomy (F = 28.33, η² = 0.17); environmental mastery (F = 25.89, η² = 0.16), personal growth (F = 16.85, η² = 0.11), purpose in life (F = 15.99, η² = 0.10), instruction effectiveness (F = 32.52, η² = 0.19), adaptation of teaching to the individual needs of students (F = 24.18, η² = 0.15), achievement of student motivation (F = 32.62, η² = 0.19), achievement of maintaining discipline in the classroom (F = 25.02, η² = 0.15), ability to collaborate with other members of the educational community (F = 26.78, η² = 0.16), and coping with challenges and effectiveness in dealing with change in educational contexts (F = 36.23, η² = 0.21).

Subsequently, in

Table 4. Mean and standard deviation: pre-test and post-test phases.

	Pre-Test				Post-Test
	Control		Experimental		Control		Experimental
Variable	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD
Psychological well-being
Self-acceptance	24.17	6.74	22.89	6.99	23.94	7.07	30.70	2.28
Positive relationships	27.87	7.98	29.48	5.27	24.00	7.32	30.79	2.12
Autonomy	35.69	6.79	35.07	6.64	36.01	6.58	42.85	1.53
Environmental mastery	23.77	7.13	22.99	7.26	24.09	7.10	30.52	2.30
Personal growth	27.61	8.30	27.22	8.11	28.00	8.14	35.85	2.63
Purpose in life	23.76	7.18	23.11	7.33	23.89	6.85	30.01	2.45
Teacher self-efficacy
Instruction effectiveness	14.87	4.76	14.30	4.58	15.01	4.62	21.99	0.96
Adaptation teaching	15.01	4.74	13.96	4.99	14.69	4.89	22.11	1.03
Achievement motivation	14.69	4.94	14.16	4.75	14.89	4.86	21.90	0.96
Maintain discipline	14.74	4.77	14.16	4.67	14.91	4.67	21.93	0.93
Collaborate community	14.87	4.96	14.03	4.82	14.64	5.19	22.16	1.04
Cope with change	14.59	4.69	14.08	4.82	14.69	4.55	22.19	1.02

Note. Adaptation teaching = adaptation of teaching to the individual needs of students; achievement motivation = achievement of student motivation; maintain discipline = achievement of maintaining discipline in the classroom; collaborate community = ability to collaborate with other members of the educational community; cope with change = coping with challenges and effectiveness in dealing with change in educational contexts.

, the means and standard deviations of the control and experimental groups at the two assessment points are presented: before the implementation of the program (pre-test phase) and after the intervention (post-test phase) for all the factors studied. This information allows us to visualize how the intervention generated positive changes in the experimental group, with particular emphasis on the factor of personal growth in psychological well-being, and the factors of adapting teaching to students’ individual needs, the ability to collaborate with other members of the educational community, and coping with challenges and efficacy in addressing change in educational contexts, within teacher self-efficacy.

Finally, Figure 1 and Figure 2 display the interaction graphs illustrating the significant differences observed between the experimental and control groups in the mean scores for each of the factors of psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy, respectively. Error bars are included representing confidence intervals (95%). Results show that the trajectory of the experimental group shows an increase in all the factors evaluated, while the trajectory of the control group remains nearly stable or even decreases slightly in some cases, such as in the factor of positive relationships in psychological well-being.

4. Discussion

The present study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of the training program EmpowerTeach, which was designed to improve psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy among active primary school teachers. Results provided robust evidence of the intervention’s effectiveness, showing significant improvements in all factors of psychological well-being and self-efficacy evaluated in the experimental group compared to the control group.

Regarding the hypotheses proposed at the beginning of the study, Hypothesis 1, “the implemented training program is effective in significantly improving the psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy of the experimental group compared to the control group” was confirmed. These results are consistent with previous research demonstrating how interventions focused on personal and emotional development positively impact psychological well-being (Martínez-Saura et al., 2024; Oliveira et al., 2021) and teacher self-efficacy (Ansley et al., 2021; Täschner et al., 2024). Such programs provide tools that primarily address stress management, burnout reduction, and the enhancement of emotional intelligence and resilience among teachers, although they are not exclusive to these aspects.

Regarding Hypothesis 2, “the implemented training program is effective in significantly improving the psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy of the experimental group compared to the control group, once the effect of the covariates of gender and years of teaching experience has been controlled” this was also confirmed, although only the covariate of years of teaching experience proved to be significant.

Results indicated that gender did not have a significant effect on any of the dimensions evaluated. However, the number of years of teaching experience did have a significant influence, suggesting that professional experience contributes to the development of psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy.

In regard to the non-significant effect of gender as a covariate, this finding warrants further reflection. While previous research has sometimes pointed to gender differences in psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy (e.g., Matud et al., 2019; Pérez-Norambuena et al., 2023), the present study did not find gender to be a significant factor. One possible explanation for this outcome could be the specific context of the study, where male and female teachers may have had similar expectations and experiences within the educational environment. Another explanation may be related to the size and diversity of the sample, where the distribution of male and female teachers might not have been large or varied enough to capture potential gender differences in psychological well-being and self-efficacy. It is also possible that other covariates, such as teaching experience, played a more dominant role in shaping the results, overshadowing any potential impact of gender.

While there is a limited number of studies implementing teacher training programs with characteristics similar to those presented in this work, and that also control for both gender and years of teaching experience to assess their effectiveness, some evidence supports the relationship between these variables and levels of psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy. In this context, the findings of the present study are consistent with previous research that has demonstrated that more teaching experience is associated with higher levels of these variables (Beltrán-Sánchez, 2023; Fedorov et al., 2020; Fu et al., 2022).

Professional experience appears to play a key role in psychological well-being, as teachers with more years spent in the educational field tend to develop effective strategies for managing stress and addressing the inherent challenges of the profession. These challenges, which in the early stages of a teaching career may be perceived as more daunting or novel due to the high workload faced by new teachers (Garcés-Delgado et al., 2023), become more manageable over time. This transformation occurs as teachers acquire practical skills, build a stronger sense of self-efficacy, and adapt to the educational environment. The ability to face high-demand situations with greater confidence and resilience may explain why more experienced teachers tend to report better levels of psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy.

However, although it was anticipated that more experienced teachers would start with higher levels of psychological well-being and self-efficacy, the implemented program was equally effective in improving these variables in teachers across all levels of experience. This suggests that the program not only reinforces skills already acquired by experienced teachers but also provides valuable tools for teachers with fewer years in the profession, who may benefit especially from an integrated approach that includes strategies for stress management, burnout reduction, and the strengthening of emotional intelligence and resilience.

Moreover, this finding is particularly noteworthy as it highlights that, while years of experience naturally contribute to the development of socioemotional and professional competencies, the implementation of a structured program focused on emotional well-being can accelerate this development and thereby offer additional support. This is especially relevant in contexts where workplace stress and burnout are common challenges for teachers (Delgado-Herrada & García-Horta, 2024).

Despite the influence of years of teaching experience, the effect of the program remained robust and significant across all the dimensions evaluated, further emphasizing its effectiveness regardless of the teachers’ prior experience. This finding underscores the program’s ability to foster substantial improvements in well-being and self-efficacy, even among educators with diverse profiles.

The inclusion of the covariates of gender and years of teaching experience in the analyses was critical to controlling for potential factors that could obscure the true results of the intervention. While years of experience proved to be significant, the analyses confirmed that the improvements observed in the experimental group are primarily attributable to the implementation of the program. This strengthens the validity and applicability of the intervention as an effective tool to promote psychological well-being and enhance teacher self-efficacy, establishing it as a valuable strategy for the holistic development of educators.

Finally, an analysis of group means before and after the training revealed a considerable positive change in the experimental group. Noteworthy improvements were observed in psychological well-being and self-efficacy, which translated into better adaptation of teaching to the individual needs of students, the ability to collaborate with other members of the educational community, the ability to cope with challenges, and effectiveness in dealing with change in an educational context. These improvements are the direct result of the training program’s approach, which focused on developing key competencies in teachers.

The modules of the EmpowerTeach program specifically addressed areas such as emotional intelligence, resilience, stress management, and burnout prevention, all essential competencies for improving teachers’ adaptation to educational challenges. By developing these skills, the goal was to contribute to better emotional regulation, allowing teachers to face daily challenges with more context-appropriate and individualized responses (Puertas-Molero et al., 2019; Stanzione et al., 2024). Furthermore, these competencies promote a greater capacity to provide empathetic and assertive responses, which are essential for establishing healthy relationships in the educational environment.

This directly impacts teachers’ psychological well-being and self-efficacy because, by improving their emotional regulation, teachers are better equipped to manage the emotional demands of the profession, which reinforces their confidence in their abilities and enhances their self-efficacy (Valente et al., 2020). This increased self-efficacy not only enables them to face challenges more effectively but also motivates them to continue improving their pedagogical practices and provide more meaningful support to their students, thereby contributing to a positive cycle in their daily teaching practice (Burić & Kim, 2020).

These results suggest that the program directly impacts essential skills for professional teacher development, such as pedagogical flexibility, effective collaboration, and resilience in the face of challenges, all of which are crucial for more adaptive and effective teaching practice in dynamic educational environments (Alvarado-Pincay et al., 2024).

Limitations and Future Research Directions

This study presents several limitations that should be taken into account. First, although the sample size was adequate, it focused exclusively on primary school teachers from a specific region, which limits the generalizability of the results. Future research could extend the sample to include teachers from other educational levels and regions to obtain broader and more representative conclusions.

In addition, while the study provided evidence of the effectiveness of a training program in improving teachers’ psychological well-being and self-efficacy, it is important to note the scarcity of previous studies that have implemented similar interventions while also controlling for gender and years of teaching experience in their analyses. The lack of studies integrating these factors represents a significant gap in the literature. Thus, future research should further explore how gender, years of teaching experience, and other factors might influence the outcomes of training programs, allowing for a deeper understanding of the impact of these variables on the effectiveness of interventions.

Another limitation is the potential biases associated with self-report measures used to evaluate the variables in this study. To overcome this limitation, it is proposed that in future research, objective or performance measures of some variables (such as performance in the case of self-efficacy to assess actual teacher efficacy) be used.

Moreover, it would be valuable to conduct longitudinal follow-ups to assess whether the program’s positive effects are sustained over time and to examine how similar interventions can be adapted to different stages of teachers’ professional careers. Additionally, future studies could investigate the indirect effects of improvements in teachers’ well-being and self-efficacy on their students, offering a comprehensive perspective on the benefits of such programs.

5. Conclusions

Findings of this study demonstrate the significant effectiveness of the teacher training program EmpowerTeach, which is aimed at improving psychological well-being and teacher self-efficacy. Even after controlling for the effect of years of experience, the results underscore the importance of designing and implementing interventions that comprehensively address emotional and professional needs of educators. This approach highlights ongoing professional development as a key tool for fostering an educational system that meets the current demands of the educational community. Furthermore, scientific evidence supports the notion that enhancing teachers’ psychological well-being and self-efficacy not only benefits educators but also positively impacts teaching quality and contributes to the creation of a healthier educational environment (Barreto-Rivas et al., 2021; Rodríguez-Chávez et al., 2024).

These findings emphasize the importance of teacher training not only focusing on theoretical and practical aspects related to teaching but also addressing the personal and socioemotional growth of teachers, as this has a direct influence on the teaching–learning process in classrooms. Improving teachers’ psychological well-being impacts their educational practices directly (Ávila-Muñoz, 2019; López-Martínez et al., 2023), which in turn fosters the development of socioemotional competencies in students (Malinauskas & Malinauskiene, 2021; Schonert-Reichl, 2017). In this regard, Bisquerra et al. (2015) highlight that for students to be competent in a specific area, it is essential to train their teachers adequately.

This study also highlights the need for future research to explore how these interventions can be adapted and deployed across diverse educational contexts, levels of experience, and teacher profiles. It is crucial to continue evaluating the long-term sustainability of these programs and their capacity to generate lasting improvements for both teachers and students. Addressing these aspects will contribute to strengthening teacher training models and aligning them with the emerging needs of the global educational environment.

Furthermore, this study underscores the importance of examining how such interventions can be tailored to different contexts and expanded to support educators with varying levels of experience and diverse backgrounds. Evaluating the long-term sustainability of these programs is essential as their implementation could help develop critical and responsible citizens capable of driving change toward a more equitable and sustainable future. Considering these elements will foster educational innovation, aligning teacher training programs with the key competencies needed to develop a progressive education system that supports the well-being of both educators and students in an interconnected and ever-changing world.