Abstract
This pilot study analyzes the level of development of personal and social competencies linked to Effective Personality in Early Childhood Education pre-service teachers, to provide evidence for the construction of an inclusive teaching profile. Using a quantitative, descriptive, and cross-sectional design, the Effective Personality Questionnaire in the University Context (PECED) questionnaire was administered to 107 teacher candidates at a university in southern Chile. The results show a positive profile in dimensions such as academic self-actualization and problem-solving self-efficacy, along with moderate levels of social self-actualization and aspects of self-esteem. Differences were identified according to age, but not according to cohort. Moreover, a significant correlation was found between self-esteem and problem-solving self-efficacy. The main contribution of this study lies in the application of the PECED instrument in a still largely unexplored educational context, revealing the need for intentional pedagogical interventions for pre-service teachers’ social–emotional development. The findings support the redesign of Early Childhood teacher education curriculum proposals with an inclusive approach and suggest extending the research to other academic programs and regions, validating the usefulness of the Effective Personality construct as a diagnostic and training tool in initial teacher education.
1. Introduction
1.1. Developing Teaching Competencies for Inclusive Education
Strengthening teaching competencies is an essential pillar in addressing the challenges posed by inclusive education within a constantly evolving context (; ). Various studies have emphasized the importance of personal competencies such as self-efficacy and empathy in inclusive teaching (; ). Research also highlights the role of social competencies, which encompass key attitudes and values necessary for effective interaction. In this regard, social skills are particularly relevant for enhancing dialogue, communication, and interdisciplinary collaborative work (). Among the core competencies for inclusive education, the teacher’s positive attitude stands out as a decisive factor for the success of instructional processes, leading to the conclusion that teacher disposition is the most influential element in the implementation of inclusive pedagogical models (; ).
The concern presented above is not exclusive to the Latin American context. From a comparative perspective, international research has highlighted the need to strengthen teaching skills with a comprehensive approach. () argues that teachers’ social and emotional competencies are a fundamental axis for advancing toward more equitable and inclusive education systems. Similarly, () show that developing these competencies has a positive impact on classroom management, student engagement, and the creation of environments conducive to inclusion. In addition, () emphasize that teacher education programs should incorporate pedagogical strategies that promote critical reflection, collaborative work, and situated experiences that prepare prospective teachers to respond ethically and effectively to diversity in the classroom.
Despite regulatory and curricular advances in inclusive education in Chile, there remains a significant gap in the comprehensive preparation of teachers to respond to diversity in the classroom. While technical and didactic approaches have been strengthened, aspects such as emotional management, ethical self-reflection, and interpersonal skills continue to be secondary dimensions in initial teacher training programs. This omission is crucial when considering how the success of inclusive education relies heavily on teachers’ abilities to build empathetic connections, make ethical decisions in complex situations, and collaborate effectively. Therefore, it is crucial to examine personal and social competencies from a structured and assessable perspective.
Effective Personality is considered an integrative construct that articulates personal strengths, ego demands, challenges, and interpersonal relationships, offering a promising tool for diagnosing and strengthening the profile of prospective teachers. However, its empirical application in the Chilean context, and in particular in Early Childhood education programs, has been scarcely explored. This research seeks to address that gap, providing concrete evidence that enables a visualization and understanding of the current competencies among pre-service teachers, to redesign more inclusive, comprehensive, and transformative training experiences.
1.2. Inclusive Education: A Supranational and National Perspective
Inclusive education has been globally recognized as one of the key educational policies promoted by organizations such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to ensure equitable access to education for all students, regardless of origin, condition, or abilities (). This approach not only seeks to integrate students with disabilities but also values diversity in all its dimensions within the education system, ensuring high-quality teaching tailored to specific needs and promoting personal and social development.
In Chile, inclusive education has been a central axis in educational reforms over the past few decades, aligning with international standards while adapting to the country’s specific context. Law 20,845 () establishes fundamental principles for school inclusion, promoting equitable participation of all students in the regular education system. However, structural challenges persist that hinder its full implementation, especially in rural areas and contexts with high levels of socioeconomic vulnerability (). From this perspective, teacher education plays a crucial role in overcoming these challenges to ensure equal opportunities for all students at the national level.
Since the return to democracy in the 1990s, Chile has promoted various reforms aimed at improving educational quality and reducing equity gaps (; ). Inspired by international human rights commitments, these reforms seek to guarantee equitable access to education for all. Despite these advances, the implementation of inclusive education still faces significant difficulties related to the transformation of educational processes, methodological innovation, and the adaptation of school structures (). The main barriers include insufficient teacher training, rigid curricula, and unwelcoming attitudes toward diversity (; ). Although the country has made progress in inclusion through reforms and international commitments, significant challenges remain that demand a profound transformation in teacher preparation.
1.3. Initial Teacher Education and Inclusive Education
Currently, initial teacher education faces the challenge of preparing teaching professionals with a strong identity, capable of addressing diversity through innovative methodologies. Inclusive education, understood as a process of pedagogical and structural transformation, seeks to ensure the presence, participation, and learning of all students by removing barriers that may limit their development (). To achieve this goal, pre-service teachers need to develop competencies that go beyond disciplinary knowledge, integrating personal and social skills that promote equitable and collaborative learning environments.
Inclusive attitudes among pre-service teachers are crucial for the effective implementation of inclusive educational models. () emphasize the importance of fostering changes in attitudes and predisposition toward diversity, with self-efficacy acting as a mediating factor in the construction of such attitudes. Moreover, teachers’ methodological competence has been identified as a key element in the implementation of inclusive curricula (). In this context, initial teacher education plays a pivotal role in transforming the education system and integrating inclusive practices (; ; ). Teacher education programs must incorporate inclusive approaches that enable future educators to develop the competencies needed to respond effectively to classroom diversity. Therefore, initial teacher education becomes a critical tool for advancing toward more equitable and accessible educational models.
1.4. Early Childhood Education and Inclusive Teacher Preparation
Within the framework of Early Childhood Education, teachers play a fundamental role in creating inclusive learning environments. Along this line, the () has proposed guidelines for strengthening inclusive early childhood education, emphasizing the importance of recognizing diversity and promoting inclusive pedagogical practices during this educational stage. Similarly, the updated Early Childhood Education Curriculum has incorporated approaches related to social inclusion, interculturality, and citizenship education, thereby boosting teacher professional preparation in these areas at the national level ().
Current trends point toward innovative models that prioritize collaborative and interdisciplinary learning, where teachers from different disciplines transcend the boundaries of knowledge, constructing new learning through dialogue and reflection. This process enhances teaching competencies and the effectiveness of inclusive strategies (, ; ). International models have demonstrated the effectiveness of training strategies that involve real-context practice through collaborative and interdisciplinary approaches, fostering disciplinary interaction to build collaborative competencies and enhance teacher efficacy (; ).
In the Chilean context, one study implemented a program of collaborative and interdisciplinary practicum experiences in initial teacher education among early childhood, special education, and primary education programs (). The study highlighted the importance of interpersonal relationships within knowledge dialogue spaces, which facilitated the development of inclusive methodological practices. However, resistance to adapting lesson plans was observed, possibly due to the formation of individualized professional identities during training. These findings underscore the need to integrate collaborative interdisciplinary experiences in initial teacher education (; ; ), as such experiences may contribute to the development of inclusive teaching competencies.
According to (), a teacher who is open to innovation is capable of fostering creative participation and projecting educational transformation among all students in the classroom. In this regard, strengthening collaborative and interdisciplinary initial teacher education is key to consolidating the competencies required to implement more inclusive and effective teaching.
1.5. Effective Personality and Its Relationship with Inclusive Teacher Education
The concept of Effective Personality gains significance in shaping the profile of an inclusive teacher. Developed by the Interuniversity Research Group on Guidance and Attention to Diversity (GOYAD), this term refers to the capacity to face challenges, make sound decisions, and maintain positive interpersonal relationships in diverse educational settings (see Table 1) (). From this perspective, the development of personal and social competencies becomes essential for the formation of an inclusive and transformative educator. These competencies include self-efficacy, self-esteem, emotional self-regulation, and assertiveness, key elements in the creation of equitable and collaborative learning environments ().
Table 1.
Dimensions of the Effective Personality Construct.
The first dimension, referred to as “Strengths of the Self”, encompasses factors related to self-concept and self-esteem and addresses the existential questions: Who am I? and How do I value myself? This dimension serves as the foundation for the strength of an effective personality (). Self-concept refers to a unified psychic construct related to what individuals think, feel, or do regarding themselves. It is essentially an attitude. Self-esteem represents the affective dimension of self-concept; it can be understood as the emotional resonance of the cognitive dimension within the ego. This dimension entails the evaluation individuals make of the positive and negative aspects of themselves, generating either a favorable or unfavorable feeling.
The second dimension, “Demands of the Self”, brings together factors associated with achievement motivation, attributions or locus of control, and expectations. It responds to existential questions such as: What do I want? What are my expectations of achieving it? Who or what is responsible for my success?
The authors propose an insightful temporal organization of these four subdimensions: motivation corresponds to the present, expectation to the future, and attribution to the past. Regarding the present, it is a vital dimension that propels the person to action. Motivation is the driving force behind human behavior and, consequently, behind effective action. About the past, it encompasses how individuals attribute the outcomes of their motivated behavior. This aspect is known as causal attribution.
According to (), making an accurate causal attribution for the results of one’s actions is a hallmark of an effective person and a sign of intelligence. This aspect requires strong “strengths of the self”, which refers to a well-formed self-concept and healthy self-esteem. It also demands a balanced sense of temperance to calibrate the cause of one’s successes properly or, if applicable, failures, whether partial or complete. Accepting success is relatively easy; accepting failure is often more difficult. Regarding the future, expectation refers to the individual’s belief in achieving their goals based on their real capacities, self-knowledge, and the intensity of their motivation. The authors argue that both the objectives pursued by effective individuals and their approach to attributing success or failure to their actions are crucial. Additionally, the level of expectation they have for achieving their objectives is also relevant.
The third dimension, “Challenges of the Self”, encompasses all factors related to problem-solving and decision-making. It also addresses existential questions, such as: What problems do I have or may arise in reaching my goals? How do I make decisions? Problem-solving and decision-making are among the most critical actions in human life, spanning all spheres of activity and influencing both cognitive and emotional processes. These authors frame this topic within a broader conceptual model: the domain of conflict resolution.
The final dimension, “Relationships of the Self”, includes factors consistently emphasized in the literature as particularly relevant, especially those related to communication, empathy, and assertiveness. In essence, it encompasses the social skills needed to live an active social life. This fourth dimension addresses questions such as: How do I communicate? How can I put myself in others’ shoes? How do I interact without losing my own identity?
These four dimensions operate interactively, mutually influencing one another. For this reason, they cannot be considered independently but rather as complementary. Consequently, they must be addressed holistically and developed collectively. Integrating the concept of Effective Personality into teacher education involves implementing strategies that strengthen educators’ professional identity and prepare them to face the challenges of inclusion. This perspective aligns with the guidelines of the Framework for Good Teaching in Early Childhood Education, which promotes inclusive and reflective pedagogical practices ().
Considering the information presented above, the present study aims to describe and compare the personal and social competencies of pre-service teachers enrolled in an Early Childhood Pedagogy program at a university in southern Chile. To this end, the Chilean adaptation of the Effective Personality Questionnaire in the University Context (PECED) was applied (). This instrument evaluates key dimensions such as self-esteem, problem-solving self-efficacy, academic self-actualization, and social self-actualization. The findings contribute to the ongoing reflection on innovation and transformation in teacher education, highlighting the need to consolidate an educational model centered on the holistic development of future teachers and the implementation of more democratic, equitable, and sustainable pedagogical strategies.
In line with the purpose mentioned earlier, this study addresses the following research questions:
- What is the level of personal and social competencies related to Effective Personality in pre-service teachers of Early Childhood Education?
- Are there significant differences in these competencies according to the pre-service teachers’ age?
These research questions facilitate the organization of the analysis and discussion of the results, aiming to generate evidence that supports proposals for improvement in initial teacher training processes with a focus on inclusion.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Sample
Following the quantitative research paradigm, a descriptive-comparative cross-sectional study was conducted using a non-experimental design, in which no variables were intentionally manipulated. This type of design allows for the observation of phenomena as they naturally occur, to describe and compare specific characteristics of a population at a given point in time.
The sample consisted of 107 pre-service teachers enrolled in an Early Childhood Education Pedagogy program at a university in southern Chile, belonging to cohorts between 2019 and 2025. Participants were selected through non-probabilistic convenience sampling, based on the accessibility and voluntary willingness of teacher candidates to participate in the study.
The researchers considered non-probabilistic convenience sampling for multiple reasons. First, this research was part of a pilot study for exploratory purposes, aimed at obtaining an initial empirical approach to the development of Effective Personality in pre-service teachers. In this context, the participants of the selected group were particularly relevant as they were studying a university program related to the research object (Early Childhood Education), which involved an immersive training process combining early practicum experiences with curriculum integration. Furthermore, the institutional conditions for sample access and the limited availability of resources hindered the execution of random or representative sampling on a larger scale. However, the inclusion criteria required that participants had completed at least 50% of the curriculum, which guaranteed a basis of academic and pedagogical experiences relevant to the analysis of personal and social competencies.
Inclusion criteria considered prospective teachers who were actively enrolled in the program and had completed at least 50% of their professional preparation curriculum. Participants were enrolled in an Early Childhood Education program offered by a university in southern Chile, whose curriculum spanned eight academic semesters, or four years. Upon completing their professional training, these prospective teachers would be awarded a bachelor’s degree in education along with a professional qualification for teaching. In this context, it was common for 18- or 19-year-old pre-service teachers to be in their second year of training, having already completed more than 50% of the curriculum. Thus, the inclusion criterion for this study, which required participants to have passed at least 50% of the curriculum, was entirely consistent with the age ranges represented in the sample.
Participants who did not complete the instrument properly or did not provide informed consent were excluded from the study. The sociodemographic characteristics of the sample are presented in Table 2.
Table 2.
Sociodemographic Characteristics of Pre-service Teachers (N = 107).
2.2. Instruments
2.2.1. Sociodemographic Data
Participants in this study provided basic information related to their gender (female, male, other), age (18 to 20 years, and 21 years or older), and the cohort year in which they entered the teacher education program. Additionally, they indicated the type of program they attended (initial training or continuing studies), considering the different academic modalities offered by the Early Childhood Education Pedagogy program at the university in southern Chile.
2.2.2. Effective Personality Questionnaire in the University Context (PECED)
To assess the personal and social competencies of pre-service teachers, the Effective Personality Questionnaire in the University Context (PECED) was used. This instrument was validated and adapted to the Chilean context by (). The questionnaire consists of 30 items, structured on a five-point Likert scale, with response options ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always).
The PECED instrument is based on the theoretical model developed by the GOYAD research group, coordinated by Martín del Buey and Martín Palacio in Spain, and was adapted to the Chilean context by () as part of an empirical validation process in the university population. This adaptation took into account linguistic, conceptual, and cultural equivalence criteria. It was supported by statistical analyses such as Cronbach’s alpha for each dimension, confirmatory factor analysis using AMOS 18.0, and correlation tests between dimensions. The results of this validation confirmed the relevance of the instrument for assessing personal and social competencies in Chilean university participants, without modifying the original structure of the questionnaire. The present research is based on this adapted version, applying it to a new university sample with similar characteristics to describe trends and possible areas for improvement in initial teacher training.
The PECED instrument is organized around four core theoretical dimensions:
- Self-esteem (SE): A dimension that assesses self-knowledge and self-worth, including aspects of self-concept and emotional security.
- Academic Self-actualization (ASA): A dimension that measures motivation toward learning, achievement expectations, and attributions regarding academic performance.
- Social Self-actualization (SSA): A dimension that explores social skills, communication, empathy, and assertiveness to establish effective interpersonal relationships.
- Problem-solving Self-efficacy (PSE): A dimension that examines the perceived ability to face problems and make appropriate decisions in diverse contexts.
This instrument has demonstrated adequate reliability and validity in previous research conducted in both Latin American and European university contexts, allowing for a diagnostic approximation of students’ self-perception regarding their personal and social competencies related to their professional teaching performance. In the context of this study, its application aligns with characterizing these competencies in pre-service early childhood educators to identify key aspects for strengthening an inclusive professional profile.
Addressing dimensions such as problem-solving self-efficacy, social self-actualization, self-esteem, and academic motivation, integrated within the construct of Effective Personality, helps to highlight substantial elements that influence future teachers’ ability to navigate diverse educational settings. In this regard, the use of PECED offers an empirical foundation for reflecting on the development of personal and social competencies in initial teacher education, providing evidence to inform the design of training strategies aimed at fostering inclusive, collaborative, and transformative pedagogical practice.
2.3. Procedure
Data collection was conducted through a survey technique using the digital version of the PECED questionnaire, implemented via an online form. Before administration, authorization was obtained from the Faculty of Education authorities at the participating university, ensuring compliance with the ethical and administrative standards of the research process.
Participants were invited via their institutional email accounts and were fully informed about the study’s objectives, the voluntary nature of their participation, and the confidentiality of their responses. Informed consent was provided at the beginning of the online survey form as a requirement to proceed.
The questionnaire was administered between December 2024 and May 2025. Participants completed the original version of the PECED, written in Spanish, as this was the pre-service teachers’ mother tongue. Afterward, the researchers translated the instrument into English for publication purposes.
The estimated completion time was approximately 20 min. The survey was conducted in remote settings, allowing students to complete it from their own devices at times compatible with their academic workload, without interfering with curricular activities.
Upon completion of the data collection period, the responses were downloaded, cleaned, and prepared for statistical analysis following the quality and rigor standards required for scientific research in initial teacher education.
2.4. Ethical Considerations
This research was conducted in adherence to the fundamental ethical principles applicable to studies involving human participants, including scientific value, methodological validity, equitable subject selection, favorable risk/benefit ratio, confidentiality, informed consent, and respect for participant autonomy.
The study was approved by the academic authorities of the Faculty of Education at the participating university, as part of a doctoral research project registered and supervised by the Doctoral Program in Education at the University of Salamanca, Spain. All participants were previously informed about the objectives of the study, the voluntary nature of their participation, and the guarantee of anonymity in the handling of data. They provided their informed consent at the beginning of the online form as a condition for participation.
2.5. Statistical Analysis
The statistical analysis of the data obtained from the PECED questionnaire was conducted using the SPSS 18.0 software. Normality of distribution was verified using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. Descriptive statistics, including frequency (f), mean (M), and standard deviation (SD), were used in the analyses. In addition, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to compare the mean scores across PECED dimensions between the defined age groups (≤20 years and ≥21 years), to explore potential significant differences.
The decision to use ANOVA was based on the need to compare the means of the previously defined age groups within the sample. This statistical test is appropriate when seeking to identify significant differences in continuous variables between more than two independent groups. Although it is recognized that the small size of some subgroups could limit statistical power, the researchers selected ANOVA because of its robustness to moderate deviations from normality and its ability to compare multiple groups simultaneously without inflating the type I error. The choice of this test was preceded by descriptive analyses that indicated approximately normal distributions in the variables evaluated, which justified the use of parametric techniques in this pilot study.
3. Results
Given the need to strengthen personal and social competencies as the foundation of an inclusive teacher profile, this study made it possible to describe and compare such competencies among students enrolled in the Early Childhood Education Pedagogy program at a university in southern Chile, based on the dimensions of the PECED questionnaire: academic self-actualization, social self-actualization, self-esteem, and problem-solving self-efficacy.
3.1. Personal and Social Competencies of Early Childhood Education Pre-Service Teachers
The results obtained through the application of the PECED revealed differentiated levels of self-perception across the evaluated dimensions: Academic Self-actualization, Social Self-actualization, Self-esteem, and Problem-solving Self-efficacy. Table 3 summarizes the frequencies and response percentages for each item in the four dimensions, organized according to the frequency scale: “Never”, “Rarely”, “Sometimes”, “Often”, and “Always”.
Table 3.
Frequencies and Percentages based on PECED Items and Dimensions.
The results obtained through the application of the PECED instrument revealed significant differences in self-perception levels regarding the dimensions evaluated. Overall, pre-service teachers show higher levels of achievement in the dimensions of Problem-solving Self-efficacy and Academic Self-actualization, suggesting a positive perception of their ability to make decisions, face academic challenges, and maintain a sustained commitment to learning. In contrast, the dimensions of Social Self-actualization and Self-esteem showed the lowest levels, reflecting possible weaknesses in interacting with others, recognizing one’s own emotions, and personal self-worth.
This pattern of results is also reflected at the individual item level. For example, statements related to perseverance, academic discipline, and achievement orientation reached percentages above 80% in the “Always” option. In contrast, items related to emotional expression, body acceptance, and social integration obtained frequencies below 45%.
These findings reveal not only the strengths that characterize prospective teachers, mainly related to academic self-regulation and problem solving, but also critical areas that must be intentionally addressed in initial teacher training, especially those that affect relationship building, empathy, and self-esteem. A detailed analysis of these results is presented below in Table 3 and Figure 1 and Figure 2.
Figure 1.
Strengths: Items with the highest frequency of achievement.
Figure 2.
Weaknesses: Items with the lowest frequency of achievement.
To improve accessibility and understanding of the results, visual representations were incorporated that summarize the items with the highest and lowest response frequencies in the “Always” option. The strengths graph (Figure 1) shows the ten items with the highest values, highlighting strong academic self-efficacy and a sense of personal achievement. On the other hand, the weaknesses graph (Figure 2) highlights critical aspects related to social self-realization, interpersonal relationships, and body perception, which require specific attention in teacher training programs.
Regarding the Academic Self-actualization dimension, the items with the highest frequency in the “Always” option were “My academic success is due to my effort and dedication” (66%) and “I am convinced that I will succeed in my future job” (51.4%). These results suggest a strong self-appreciation of effort and a positive outlook toward professional success. In contrast, the item “I have a good ability to study at the university level” showed greater dispersion in responses, indicating a less consolidated perception of cognitive competence in the academic context.
In terms of Social Self-actualization, participants broadly acknowledged their interpersonal skills, with “I feel comfortable sharing with others” receiving 43% of responses in the “Always” option. On the other hand, the items with the highest frequencies in the “Never” or “Rarely” alternatives revealed perceived limitations in establishing relationships, such as “I have few friends because I find it difficult to relate to others” (20.6% “Never,” 26.2% “Rarely”).
In the Self-esteem dimension, positive responses predominated for items such as “I have many qualities to be proud of and satisfied with” (42% “Always”) and “I accept myself as I am” (32.7% “Often”), reflecting a generally favorable self-image. However, internal tensions also emerged, for example, “There are many things about myself that I would change if I could”, with 34.6% responding “Sometimes” and 27% responding “Always”.
Finally, for Problem-solving Self-efficacy, the items with the highest favorable ratings were “I carefully consider the consequences before making a decision” and “I manage my emotions well,” both with more than 38% of responses in the “Always” option. This fact suggests a relatively strong ability in emotional regulation and reflective decision-making.
3.2. Comparison by Age Group
An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore significant differences between age groups across each evaluated dimension. The ANOVA results showed no statistically significant differences (p > 0.05) in any of the dimensions, suggesting that perceptions of effective personality are homogeneous between students aged 20 or younger and those aged 21 or older. See Table 4.
Table 4.
Comparison by Age Group across Effective Personality Dimensions.
Pre-service teachers over the age of 21 reported slightly higher scores in Problem-solving Self-efficacy (M = 19.19; SD = 3.187) compared to their peers under the age of 20 (M = 18.85; SD = 3.279), which could be related to greater maturity and academic experience. In Social Self-actualization, older participants also showed a slight increase (M = 23.92; SD = 2.995), although no significant differences were found. Conversely, Self-esteem was marginally higher among pre-service teachers under 20 (M = 30.02; SD = 4.075) compared to the older group (M = 29.38; SD = 5.815), which may reflect a more optimistic self-perception in the earlier stages of their teacher training.
4. Discussion
The purpose of this study was to describe and compare the personal and social competencies that constitute Effective Personality in pre-service teachers of Early Childhood Pedagogy, based on the application of the PECED instrument. The results reveal dimensions with positive levels of development, as well as critical areas that require strengthening within initial teacher education from an inclusive perspective.
4.1. Academic Self-Actualization
The academic self-actualization dimension showed high scores on items related to perceived effort and personal responsibility as key factors for academic success. A total of 74.4% of participants expressed confidence in achieving career success (Item 27), and 86% associated their academic achievements with personal ability (Item 21), which reflects a strong achievement orientation aligned with the development of a solid professional identity.
This finding aligns with previous studies indicating that self-efficacy is a key predictor of teaching performance and the ability to manage classroom diversity (; ). However, some indicators also highlight uncertainties regarding academic capacity. For instance, 38% of participants responded “Often” and 22.4% “Always” to “I have a good ability to study at the university”, suggesting that academic self-confidence is not consistent and requires attention through reflective pedagogical support.
This dimension consistently receives high ratings among pre-service teachers, reflecting a favorable appropriation of their educational processes. The responses reflect a positive attitude toward learning, perseverance, and personal development. This profile is consistent with an education that encourages commitment to learning and highlights the importance of maintaining motivating and challenging educational environments.
4.2. Social Self-Actualization
The social self-actualization dimension revealed ambivalent self-perceptions. While 73.8% of pre-service teachers reported feeling comfortable sharing with others (Item 30) and 65.5% believed they succeed in relationships (Item 18), high levels of interpersonal insecurity persist. 42% anticipated difficulties in social relationships (Item 14), and 43% attributed their failures to a lack of social skills (Item 10).
These findings indicate that one of the key challenges for inclusive teacher education lies in strengthening social self-actualization. Innovations in initial teacher training should focus on active methodologies that foster collaborative work, co-construction of knowledge, and relational safety. From this perspective, specialists propose that collaborative learning fosters socioemotional skills essential for teaching practice, such as empathy, effective communication, and openness to others as legitimate and different human beings (; ; ).
Unlike the previous dimension, social self-actualization presents more heterogeneous scores. Although interpersonal relationships are rated positively, some items reflect insecurity in emotional expression and participation in group contexts. This finding suggests the need to integrate training strategies that enhance social skills, especially in collaborative and inclusive settings that characterize educational work.
Furthermore, interdisciplinary collaboration strategies can enhance Effective Personality by fostering dialogue between disciplines and jointly addressing educational challenges. According to (), this dynamic strengthens self-confidence, critical thinking, and contextualized pedagogical decision-making.
4.3. Self-Esteem
Self-esteem showed generally favorable levels. For example, 58.9% of pre-service teachers reported feeling satisfied with themselves (Item 11), and 70% stated they possess qualities that make them feel proud (Item 19). However, internal tensions also emerged. For instance, 34.6% responded “Sometimes” and 27% “Always” to “There are many things about myself that I would change if I could”, indicating a self-perception still influenced by internal demands or normative models.
This finding supports the view that self-esteem is a dynamic construct shaped by cultural and educational contexts. Furthermore, correlation analysis revealed no significant relationship between age and self-esteem (ρ = 0.045; p = 0.733), reinforcing the importance of early and intentional educational interventions during pre-service teacher education to support individuals’ self-esteem development, rather than assuming it will grow naturally over time.
In summary, the results associated with self-esteem show a positive trend in the pre-service teachers’ assessment of themselves. There is evidence of a favorable perception of their ability to face challenges and recognize their achievements. However, the variability in some items suggests that there are individual differences, possibly influenced by recent academic experiences. Strengthening this dimension is key to promoting a reflective and confident attitude toward future teaching practices.
4.4. Problem-Solving Self-Efficacy
The problem-solving self-efficacy dimension received particularly positive ratings. A total of 67.2% of pre-service teachers reported carefully planning their decisions (Item 4), and 68.2% stated they gather information before making a decision (Item 12), reflecting a favorable disposition toward an informed and reflective decision-making process. Emotional regulation also emerged as a strength, with 57.9% reporting that they manage their emotions well (Item 8).
The results of this manuscript reinforce ’s () argument regarding the central role of self-efficacy in professional behavior. These findings are also consistent with those of a study conducted by (), which emphasizes that teamwork and real-world problem-solving experiences help develop this competency. However, as with self-esteem, no significant correlations were found between cohort and problem-solving self-efficacy (ρ = 0.083; p = 0.532), suggesting that this dimension does not arise spontaneously, but instead relies on structured experiential learning opportunities.
It should be noted that this dimension reveals moderate mastery in the perception of competence to face and solve problems. Participants demonstrate confidence in their decisions, but there are also varying levels of ability to act in complex situations. This aspect highlights the need to strengthen learning opportunities that are situated and accompanied by reflection, aimed at developing effective and ethical pedagogical decision-making.
Although initially it was considered to make comparisons between the dimensions of the PECED according to the teacher candidates’ cohort, the researchers ruled out this possibility due to the small and uneven size of the subgroups, which made it impossible to meet the necessary assumptions for applying parametric tests. For this reason, the inferential analysis focused only on the age variable, which had a more homogeneous distribution and was statistically adequate for comparison. However, the absence of significant differences between cohorts is reported as a relevant antecedent for future research that expands the sample.
4.5. Practical Implications for Inclusive Teacher Education
The findings of the present study have direct implications for the curricular and pedagogical redesign of initial teacher training programs. First, the evidence indicates that the personal and social competencies linked to Effective Personality do not emerge automatically with academic progress but instead need to be promoted through deliberate and sustained pedagogical strategies over time.
In this regard, the curriculum of Early Childhood Teacher Education programs should integrate modules focused on social-emotional development, teacher identity building, and ethical reflection in diverse contexts. These modules could include optional or core subjects such as “Emotional education and professional self-awareness”, “Interpersonal relationships in inclusive educational environments”, or “Building pedagogical communities”.
It is also essential to strengthen the implementation of experiential personal development workshops, where pre-service teachers can actively address aspects such as emotional self-regulation, empathy, assertive communication, and stress management in real classroom situations.
Another relevant proposal is the incorporation of contextualized practicum experiences from the early stages of professional training, which allow these skills to be applied and observed in authentic settings. For example, early internships in schools with sociocultural diversity or with a high presence of students with special educational needs, accompanied by reflection tutorials that integrate the personal dimension into pedagogical analysis.
Finally, teacher education should promote interdisciplinary spaces for dialogue and collaboration, where pre-service teachers work alongside professionals from other disciplines (psychology, social work, special education) on inclusive educational intervention projects. This approach promotes a broader understanding of the role of teachers as agents of change who are ethically committed to equity.
5. Conclusions
The purpose of this pilot study was to describe and analyze the level of development of personal and social competencies associated with Effective Personality in Early Childhood Education pre-service teachers, considering age as a differentiating factor. Using a quantitative, descriptive, and cross-sectional approach, the PECED questionnaire, adapted to the Chilean context, was administered to a sample of 107 teacher candidates from a university in southern Chile.
Concerning the first research question, the results show that the participants demonstrate a positive overall development in the competencies evaluated, with particular emphasis on the dimensions of academic self-actualization and problem-solving self-efficacy, which reflects a high disposition toward learning, decision-making, and overcoming challenges. However, weaknesses were identified in the dimension of social self-actualization and specific aspects of self-esteem, especially about emotional expression and empathic interaction, which are fundamental elements of inclusive teaching practices.
With regard to the second question, significant differences were identified according to age, with older students showing higher levels of self-esteem and self-actualization. This fact suggests that the development of these competencies does not occur automatically with academic advancement but instead requires systematic and contextually relevant pedagogical interventions from the early years of education. The cohort variable did not show significant differences, although the uneven composition of the subgroups limited its analysis.
Consequently, the findings of this study highlight the need to incorporate intentional training strategies that promote social-emotional development, collaborative work, interdisciplinary dialogue, and ethical decision-making in authentic contexts. These competencies not only strengthen the professional profile but are also essential for transformative teaching focused on diversity and equity.
This study provides valuable empirical evidence for reviewing initial teacher training programs with an inclusive approach, reinforcing the urgency of training prospective teachers capable of responding humanely and professionally to contemporary challenges. It is recommended that this line of research be extended to other teacher education programs, universities, and regions of the country, integrating variables such as professional preparation stage/level, previous trajectories, and experiences in inclusive practices, to build a more comprehensive and representative vision of the development of Effective Personality in pre-service teacher training.
6. Limitations
This study has many limitations that should be considered when interpreting its results. First, the sample was selected using non-probability convenience sampling and consisted exclusively of participants from a university in southern Chile. This condition limits the generalizability of the findings to other institutional or geographical contexts, suggesting the need for future research that broadens the sample scope to other degree programs, universities, and regions.
Second, the data were obtained through a self-report questionnaire, which implies a dependence on the participants’ self-perception. While this approach allows for the capture of the students’ subjective and experiential perspectives, it may also be influenced by social desirability biases or a lack of reflective awareness. Therefore, it would be appropriate to complement these results with qualitative methods, such as interviews or focus groups, that allow for triangulation and deeper exploration of the dimensions evaluated.
Finally, as this is a pilot study, the focus was on the initial diagnosis of personal and social competencies, without conducting a longitudinal follow-up to observe the evolution of these competencies throughout the educational trajectory. This aspect represents an opportunity for further studies that integrate the Effective Personality approach into continuous assessment and curriculum improvement processes.
7. Suggestions for Future Research
Based on this study’s limitations and the theoretical and practical implications that emerge from the results, the researchers identified relevant directions for future research.
First, we recommend the development of longitudinal studies that allow for the observation of the evolution of personal and social competencies throughout the teacher training process. This approach would facilitate a deeper understanding of the impact of curricular experiences, pedagogical practices, and mentoring on the sustained strengthening of Effective Personality.
Second, it is pertinent to incorporate mixed-method approaches, combining quantitative measurements with qualitative techniques (in-depth interviews, focus groups, narrative analysis) that allow for triangulation of information and a richer capture of the complexity of socio-emotional development in educational contexts.
Likewise, there is a need to broaden the geographical and disciplinary scope of the studies, including samples of teacher candidates from other universities, regions, and specialties (such as Primary Education, Secondary Education, or Special Education), to explore similarities and differences in the configuration of personal and social competencies according to diverse educational contexts.
Finally, it is recommended to develop evidence-based curriculum proposals that systematically incorporate the Effective Personality construct into initial teacher training. From this perspective, future studies could focus on the design, implementation, and evaluation of pilot modules or programs that promote educational inclusion from an ethical, reflective, and emotionally competent perspective.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization: S.L.R.; Methodology: O.H.G.; Software: S.L.R.; Formal analysis: S.L.R.; Investigation: S.L.R., O.H.G. and M.I.C.Á.; Data curation: S.L.R.; Writing—original draft preparation: S.L.R.; Writing—review and editing: S.L.R., O.H.G. and M.I.C.Á.; Supervision: O.H.G. and M.I.C.Á. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This study was funded by the National Agency for Research and Development of Chile (ANID), through the InES Gender project, code ANID/INGE230010, within the framework of the Scientific Publications Competitive Fund, UCT Researchers 2025.
Institutional Review Board Statement
The study was conducted in the city of Temuco, Chile, in accordance with the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. The research was authorized by the Faculty of Education of the corresponding university. The ethics committee reference number is not available.
Informed Consent Statement
Prior to accessing the online questionnaire, all participants received detailed information regarding the objectives of the study, the academic use of the data, the voluntary nature of their participation, and the confidentiality of their responses. Informed consent was explicitly provided by checking an acceptance box at the beginning of the form, in accordance with ethical principles for research in digital environments.
Data Availability Statement
Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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