Portuguese Primary-School Teachers’ Experiences on Their Participation in a Professional Development Program on Experimental Science Teaching

Abstract

The quality of initial and continuous training for primary-school teachers is essential to fostering science education and building strong scientific foundations. This qualitative case study, conducted over two consecutive school years in Portugal, examines the impact of a continuous professional development program aimed at addressing gaps in primary teachers’ experimental science teaching. The program took place in the municipality of Penafiel and was organized by a university research team in collaboration with local schools. The program combined face-to-face sessions, in-school support from expert monitors, and the provision of teaching resources. Data were drawn from Individual Final Reflective Reports written by 108 teachers, all of whom participated through mandatory enrollment in the local training initiative. The sample was therefore exhaustive, covering the entire population targeted by the municipality. The reports were analyzed using qualitative content analysis, following an inductive coding process supported by peer validation. NVivo (version 14) software was used to assist in the categorization and management of textual data. The analysis revealed that teachers highly valued the training, particularly highlighting the relevance of the content, the effectiveness of the methodologies, and the training’s practical utility in overcoming classroom challenges. The program enhanced teachers’ confidence in implementing experimental activities and improved their teaching practices. The study underscores the importance of continuous professional development in strengthening teacher qualifications and science education. Limitations include reliance on self-reported reflections, the focus on a single municipality, and the absence of triangulation with classroom observations. Nevertheless, the program demonstrates that combining active methodologies, contextualized classroom support, and resource provision is a promising model for teacher professional development. The implications are relevant for policymakers, training centers, and teacher educators designing continuous professional development initiatives. Future research should explore scalability, longitudinal effects, and the comparative effectiveness of different continuous professional development mode.

1. Introduction

The continuous professional development of primary-school teachers plays a decisive role in improving the quality of science education, particularly in relation to experimental, hands-on approaches in the classroom. While a considerable body of research highlights persistent gaps in both initial and in-service teacher training in science (Turner et al., 2019; Sultan, 2020; Walan & Chang Rundgren, 2014), relatively few studies have explored in depth how teachers experience their integration into structured professional development programs.

The present study seeks to address this gap by examining the perspectives of 108 Portuguese primary teachers who participated in a professional development program focused on experimental science methodologies. The study is distinctive in two ways. First, it relies on the qualitative analysis of reflective reports written by the teachers, which provide authentic insights into their experiences and the perceived outcomes of the training. Second, the program itself combined three complementary components—face-to-face training sessions, ongoing school-based mentoring by expert monitors, and the provision of structured teaching resources—which together offered a comprehensive model of professional learning.

By documenting teachers’ evaluations and perceptions of this initiative, the study contributes new empirical evidence to the international discussion on effective professional development in science education. Specifically, it sheds light on the conditions under which continuous training can strengthen teachers’ confidence, enrich pedagogical practice, and support the implementation of experimental activities in primary classrooms. In doing so, the findings provide valuable guidance for the design of future professional development policies and initiatives aimed at fostering scientific literacy from the early years of schooling.

2. Theoretical Background

2.1. Science Education in Initial Teacher Training for Primary Education

In the current educational context, the quality of initial teacher training for primary education in the area of science plays a critical role in students’ academic success and in fostering future participation in scientific careers (Turner et al., 2019). However, one of the structural challenges in this training lies in the need to prepare professionals capable of teaching multiple subject areas, which often leads to less in-depth preparation, particularly in science. This limitation can hinder not only the acquisition of scientific knowledge but also the development of appropriate pedagogical skills for teaching experimental science (Sultan, 2020). Consequently, the quality of science instruction may be compromised, with direct implications for students’ learning and interest in this field (Lange et al., 2022).

Hafiz et al. (2021) underscore the importance of a well-structured curriculum tailored to the specific demands of science education, enabling future teachers to develop effective lesson plans aligned with innovative teaching approaches. To this end, the curriculum of primary teacher training programs should incorporate not only solid scientific knowledge but also effective pedagogical practices that promote active and inquiry-based learning, which are essential characteristics of experimental science teaching (Terra et al., 2020).

Reforming initial teacher education programs faces major structural challenges. Among the main issues identified by Mandyata et al. (2023) is the disconnect between theoretical training and its practical application in classroom settings. They suggest that pre-service programs should place greater emphasis on the practical component of teacher learning. Furthermore, the limited use of research-based teaching methods—widely recognized for fostering critical thinking and the development of scientific competencies among future teachers—represents a significant gap, undermining the relevance and applicability of science to real-world contexts (McCullagh & Doherty, 2020). Another concern is the fragmented approach to the integration of scientific content and pedagogy, which has proven ineffective in preparing teachers for science instruction (McKinnon et al., 2017). These challenges hinder the development of essential knowledge and pedagogical skills and influence future teachers’ attitudes and self-efficacy regarding science teaching.

Previous research, as outlined below, highlights that restructuring primary teacher education programs is essential to addressing these issues. Deehan et al. (2019) argue that training models involving teachers in their design can increase their confidence in teaching science. Additionally, Johnson and Cotterman (2015) and Blackmore et al. (2018) highlight the need for teacher educators to recognize the specific challenges faced by future teachers and to develop strategies that balance scientific knowledge acquisition with the adoption of effective pedagogical practices. Combining these elements could lead to a positive transformation in science education, reducing the tendency for teachers to replicate the instructional methods by which they themselves were taught—a phenomenon that often stifles pedagogical innovation (Leshem & Trafford, 2006).

The lack of critical reflection on initial science teacher education has been associated with ongoing difficulties in teaching this subject. Several authors (Markwick & Reiss, 2024; Tosun, 2000) reported that many primary teachers described their experience with science as frustrating, unpleasant, and a source of insecurity. Similarly, Walan and Chang Rundgren (2014) found that many teachers lack confidence in teaching science, identifying insufficient initial training as a key factor.

Research on primary teachers’ self-efficacy reinforces the need for substantial investment in their scientific training (Admiraal et al., 2021; Power et al., 2023). Smith and Nadelson (2017), in analyzing teachers’ perceptions of their preparedness across subjects, found that while 80% felt well-prepared to teach reading and 77% to teach mathematics, only 39% felt confident teaching science. More specifically, only 29% felt comfortable teaching life sciences, 26% earth sciences, and a mere 17% physical sciences. These figures underscore the need to strengthen initial teacher training by allocating more time and resources to the development of both scientific and pedagogical competencies.

Although reforms in initial teacher education represent a promising path forward, persistent challenges call for a sustained approach. Considering the data presented by Smith and Nadelson (2017), it is crucial that initial training be complemented by continuous professional development, enabling teachers to address knowledge gaps, refine their instructional strategies, and adopt innovative methodologies that support active student learning in science. Recent studies also highlight the relevance of integrating inquiry-based practices in teacher training, fostering engagement and deeper conceptual understanding (e.g., Voet & De Wever, 2019). Only through this coordinated investment can teacher training be consolidated in a way that equips educators for more dynamic, engaging, and meaningful science instruction.

To provide a theoretical foundation for these issues, this study draws on a sociocultural perspective inspired by Vygotsky’s social learning theory (Vygotsky, 1978). From this viewpoint, knowledge construction emerges through social interaction, cultural mediation, and collaboration among peers and monitors. The concept of the zone of proximal development highlights the importance of guidance from more experienced colleagues or experts in fostering meaningful learning. Applied to science teacher education, this framework highlights the role of professional learning communities, mentoring, and active collaborative methodologies. By adopting this theoretical lens, the literature review presented above is strengthened by a conceptual foundation that supports the rationale for the professional development program under study.

2.2. Continuous Professional Development of Primary Teachers in Science Education

Building on Vygotsky’s sociocultural perspective, continuous professional development can be understood as a collaborative process in which teachers enhance their scientific knowledge and pedagogical skills through guided practice, peer interaction, and sustained support in authentic classroom contexts.

Given the previously identified training gaps, such professional learning opportunities are essential for strengthening scientific knowledge and fostering positive attitudes toward science education. Teachers who hold a positive perception of their role in science teaching are more likely to adopt innovative methodologies, diversify educational resources, and encourage students’ curiosity. Furthermore, confidence in one’s teaching abilities has a direct impact on pedagogical effectiveness and student learning outcomes (Gray et al., 2022). In this regard, Gümüş and Bellibaş (2021) and Cochran-Smith et al. (2020) demonstrate a strong correlation between ongoing professional development, increased teacher self-efficacy, and improved student engagement in the learning process. Therefore, targeting teachers who face specific challenges—such as difficulties in teaching science—is particularly important.

Several authors (e.g., Haug & Mork, 2021; Nguyen, 2017) have highlighted the characteristics that make CPD programs effective. Haug and Mork (2021) identify five key components: (1) a comprehensive focus on content, including both theoretical knowledge and practical skills; (2) the use of active learning methodologies; (3) collective participation, promoting collaborative communities that offer a space for sharing and cooperation among teachers with similar goals and needs; (4) coherence between training content and classroom practice; and (5) a duration appropriate to the program’s educational objectives. In addition, Nguyen (2017) stresses the need to balance professional development with teachers’ work–life responsibilities, as factors such as well-being and job satisfaction directly affect teaching effectiveness.

The successful implementation of what is learned during CPD can be supported by providing structured curricular materials that assist teachers in translating training into practice. Studies have shown that the availability of well-designed teaching resources enhances teachers’ confidence and pedagogical consistency, particularly in science (Haug & Mork, 2021; Sims & Fletcher-Wood, 2021). This approach is especially helpful for primary teachers who may struggle with specific scientific content areas.

To ensure the effectiveness of CPD initiatives, planning and implementation must consider several fundamental aspects. According to Sims and Fletcher-Wood (2021), a successful CPD program should include a strong theoretical foundation, a collaborative learning environment, voluntary participation, topics relevant to teaching practice, input from subject-matter experts, and opportunities for practical application of the acquired knowledge. However, despite the importance of these elements, evaluating the effectiveness of CPD remains challenging due to the complexity of the factors influencing teaching practice.

A crucial aspect in designing effective CPD is understanding the factors that shape teachers’ pedagogical practices, including their beliefs, sense of self-efficacy, motivation, and the school context in which they work. Previous research highlights that professional learning communities are particularly effective in this regard, as they encourage collaboration, critical reflection, and continuous improvement in teaching practices (Cochran-Smith et al., 2020; Gümüş & Bellibaş, 2021). By strengthening teachers’ professional growth, such communities indirectly foster more meaningful and accessible science education.

Taking into account the aspects discussed above, it becomes clear that continuous professional development for primary teachers in science is of vital importance, particularly because this domain is often underrepresented or undervalued in initial teacher education. This finding is consistent with international evidence showing that sustained CPD is directly linked to teachers’ professional identity, motivation, and long-term instructional change (Desimone & Garet, 2015; Avalos, 2011; Darling-Hammond et al., 2017).

Given the central role of teachers in building students’ scientific knowledge and promoting critical thinking, it is essential to understand how professional development programs contribute to improving their pedagogical practices and enhancing their confidence in teaching science. The aim of this study is to examine primary-school teachers’ experiences in a continuous professional development program focused on experimental science education. In particular, the research addresses the following questions:

• How do primary-school teachers evaluate their participation in a continuous professional development program focused on experimental science education?
• How do primary-school teachers report on their experiences in such a program?
• What challenges and opportunities do primary-school teachers report regarding their participation in the program?

By analyzing their reported experiences and reflections and the impact of the training on classroom practice, the study seeks to identify key challenges and opportunities associated, contributing to the reflection and improvement of CPD policies in this field. These aspects are particularly relevant in light of the issues highlighted in the theoretical framework, such as the limited preparation of teachers in experimental science, the insufficient integration between theory and practice, and teachers’ lack of confidence in teaching science.

3. Methods

This study adopted a qualitative exploratory design, focusing on the analysis of reflective reports written by the participating teachers. According to Creswell and Poth (2018) and Yin (2018), qualitative designs are particularly suitable for investigating teachers’ perceptions, meanings, and practices in authentic educational contexts. In this sense, the collection and analysis of data sought to interpret teachers’ experiences within the continuous professional development program, rather than to measure variables quantitatively.

3.1. Description of the ExperimentaCiências Training Program

ExperimentaCiências was a continuous professional development program designed to provide in-service training to primary-school teachers in the area of experimental science education, acknowledging notable gaps in their initial training in this field. The program ran over a two-year period and began with an initial training phase comprising 25 h of instruction, distributed across three in-person sessions held each school year: one in December (end of the first term), one in April (end of the second term), and a final session in July (end of the academic year).

In addition to these training sessions, monthly school-based support visits were scheduled and carried out by specialists, referred to as “monitors” within the scope of the project. During these visits, each monitor observed the classrooms of participating teachers. They provided on-site assistance. The goal was to ensure that teachers actively participated in the implementation of the activities they had previously been trained on. As outlined in the training program’s planning, the monitors assumed a co-facilitating role, supporting the execution of activities while also supplying the necessary materials and resources.

In each training session, teachers were introduced to a set of activities that they would later implement in the classroom, with the support of the program monitors. During the final training session each year, a comprehensive review of the program’s implementation was conducted to gather feedback and suggestions for improvement. Additionally, teachers received guidelines for preparing an Individual Final Reflective Report, which formed part of their performance assessment in the training. The data analyzed in this study were drawn from these reports, described in further detail below.

The development and implementation of the ExperimentaCiências program followed four distinct phases (Figure 1), taking place between the beginning (September) of the first academic year in which the training program was introduced and the end (July) of the second academic year. The first phase involved the selection and planning of activities by science education experts in a university context. In the second phase, educational resources were developed, and materials were acquired for use during both the training and classroom implementation. The third phase marked the beginning of teacher training sessions focused on conducting science experiments with their students. Finally, in the fourth phase, these activities were carried out in classrooms with the support of program monitors.

The materials used in the experimental activities were selected for their low cost and easy accessibility, typically available in supermarkets, hardware stores, or DIY shops. The aim was to demonstrate to teachers that, after the program ended, they could easily continue these practices independently by sourcing the materials themselves.

A variety of teacher and student support materials were created and developed by the university team responsible for the ExperimentaCiências program. Activity selection was based on an analysis of the national curriculum guidelines for the subject Estudo do Meio (Environmental Studies), which in Portugal includes science along with other subjects such as History and Geography. Based on this analysis, a set of 17 practical/experimental activities was developed, distributed across various scientific domains, and tailored to the 3rd and 4th years of primary school (the final two years of primary education in Portugal, which were the focus of the program). These activities were designed to cover the most relevant theoretical and practical content identified by the program team.

Table 1. Overview of the activities developed in the ExperimentaCiências program, their corresponding scientific area and topics, and the school years in which they were implemented.

Scientific Area	Topic	Activities Developed
		3rd Year of Schooling	4th Year of Schooling
Biology	Human Body	The Air We Breathe	–
		Fingerprints
		Body Balance
		Studying the Effect of Amylase on Starch
	Other Living Beings	Discovering Microscopic Life	Biodiversity in My School
		Light and Food Production in Plants	Let’s Explore the Anatomy of a Mussel?
Physics	Energy	–	Electrical Circuits and Electricity
			Light Spectra
	Universe	Orientation on Planet Earth	Phases of the Moon
		Earth’s Rotation Movement
Chemistry	Materials	Acids in Daily Life	Starch Hunting
			Properties of Water
			The Science of Metals

presents an overview of these activities, linking each one to the relevant scientific topic and school year.

Each activity was accompanied by a Guiding Document, which included a summary outlining the essence of the activity, a brief theoretical background, and a guiding question designed to stimulate students’ investigative thinking and help them make connections to everyday situations. This document also featured a clearly defined objective, a section titled “Activity Development and Exploration” with methodological suggestions, a list of required materials, and a step-by-step protocol for the experimental procedure. Lastly, the document contained a results section detailing the expected outcomes, along with a scientific explanation of the observed phenomena using simple and age-appropriate language.

After the first year of implementation, a new version of the Guiding Document was produced. This version included illustrative images of the activities, collected from primary-school students who had participated in the program. These visuals served as an additional resource for teachers implementing the activities in subsequent years.

In addition to the Guiding Document for teachers, students were provided with an Exploration Worksheet. This resource was designed to guide students through the activity, support data collection, and included questions or challenges intended to maintain their motivation and focus. The worksheet featured written sections for recording and analyzing data, explaining observed phenomena, interacting with digital simulations where appropriate, and presenting results and conclusions, including oral presentations. At the end of the worksheet, students could evaluate the activity by selecting a pictogram corresponding to one of three statements: “Didn’t like it”, “Liked it”, and “Really liked it”. (Although students at this level are already literate, they may still struggle to express detailed opinions; thus, using pictograms was deemed a suitable option.)

All Guiding Documents and corresponding Exploration Worksheets produced in the program were compiled and published in a book (Ferreira et al., 2021).

3.2. Participants

Participants were selected through a census approach, as all primary-school teachers in the municipality of Penafiel were automatically enrolled in the program by the local education authorities. Thus, the study focused exclusively on the group of participants who took part in the first two years of the ExperimentaCiências program, as this timeframe had been initially planned for the intervention. Therefore, only data from this period were analyzed.

Over these two years, the training program involved a total of 108 teachers.

Table 2. Sociodemographic and educational background of teachers participating in the ExperimentaCiências program.

Variable	Category	Number of Participants
Gender	Female	101
	Male	7
Age	<30 years	5
	31–60 years	96
	>60 years	7
Academic Qualification	Bachelor’s degree	104
	Master’s degree	4
	PhD	0
Training in Experimental Science Teaching	Yes (≥1 training course)	72
	No (0 training courses)	36

presents their academic background and sociodemographic characteristics.

The data show a clear predominance of female participants (N = 101, 91% of the sample), compared to only 7 male teachers. Regarding age, most teachers fell within the 31–60 age group (N = 96; ~87%). In contrast, only five teachers were under 30 years old and seven were over 60.

All participants held undergraduate degrees, and only four (approximately 4%) reported having completed a master’s degree. None held a PhD. With respect to previous training in experimental science education, 72 teachers had already attended at least one training course on the topic—meaning short-term accredited professional development sessions (typically 15–25 h) offered by teacher training centers or higher education institutions in Portugal, focusing on specific topics within experimental science education, such as simple physics experiments, environmental studies, or biology activities for primary grades—whereas 36 reported having no prior training in this area.

Given that participation in the ExperimentaCiências program was mandatory for primary-school teachers in the municipality of Penafiel, this sample can be considered representative of the local teaching workforce. Before completing the questionnaires, each participant was presented with an informed consent form, ensuring their voluntary participation in the study. This document clearly explained the purpose of the research, its objectives, and any potential risks or benefits. It also guaranteed confidentiality and data privacy. Importantly, although participation in the training itself was mandatory, participation in the study was entirely voluntary. Only those who agreed and signed the consent form were given the questionnaire to complete.

3.3. Data Collection and Analysis

As previously mentioned, data for this study were collected from the Individual Final Reflective Reports, which constituted an essential component of teacher assessment in the training program. All participating teachers completed this report at the end of each academic year during which the program was implemented.

This data-collection instrument was chosen for two main reasons. First, the sample size made it logistically challenging to conduct structured individual interviews. Second, the teachers’ limited availability would have made it difficult to schedule such interviews, potentially compromising both response rate and data representativeness. Therefore, documentary analysis of the reflective reports emerged as a more appropriate methodological approach (as opposed to, for example, questionnaire-based surveys) for obtaining detailed, meaningful insights and more authentic perceptions of the training program and its impact.

The Individual Final Reflective Report was structured to collect qualitative data focused on teachers’ experiences and reflections regarding the training. It included four key reflection prompts, each designed to explore different aspects of the training:

• Overall evaluation of the ExperimentaCiências training program, capturing general perceptions regarding the quality and relevance of the training;
• Teachers’ personal views on the methodologies used and the organization of the training, to assess the appropriateness of the pedagogical approaches and overall structure;
• Relevance of the training activities for teachers’ professional development, evaluating the practical applicability of the content and strategies covered;
• Skills developed throughout the training and their application in classroom practice, analyzing the program’s direct impact on science teaching.

The qualitative analysis of the teachers’ reflections was conducted following content analysis principles, a widely used technique for interpreting textual data in educational research (Bardin, 2024). This approach enabled the identification of response patterns, recurring themes, and emergent insights reflecting teachers’ perceptions of the training’s benefits and challenges.

The analysis employed a thematic coding approach, with categories and patterns derived inductively from the data rather than being predefined by existing theories (Bardin, 2024). To ensure reliability and validity, coding was carried out independently by all authors, who are specialists in science education. The results were subsequently compared and discussed until consensus was reached, thus ensuring consistency in categorization. The categorization process followed four methodological steps: (1) an initial exploratory reading to identify main ideas and recurring themes; (2) open coding to highlight relevant units of meaning; (3) grouping of these units into categories and subcategories; and (4) peer validation of the emerging categories.

3.4. Validity and Reliability

In this qualitative study, specific procedures were adopted to ensure validity and reliability, in line with widely recognized criteria for qualitative research (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Creswell & Poth, 2018; Shenton, 2004). In terms of credibility, investigator triangulation was guaranteed, since all authors independently analyzed the teachers’ narratives and subsequently compared and discussed the emerging categories until consensus was reached. Confirmability was ensured through systematic documentation of the coding process. Dependability was strengthened by following a consistent analytical protocol that included exploratory reading, open coding, categorization, and peer cross-validation. In addition, the use of reflective written reports by teachers, instead of brief oral responses, allowed for the collection of more authentic and in-depth data, further contributing to the robustness of the study. Transferability was supported by providing detailed descriptions of the training program, participants, and context, enabling readers to assess the applicability of the findings to other educational settings.

We consider that the conditions required for validity and reliability in qualitative research were adequately addressed in this study. Having outlined the data collection, analysis, and procedures to ensure rigor, the following section presents the results of this analysis.

4. Results

The results of the content analysis are presented below and summarized in

Table 3. Categorization of Content Analysis of Teachers’ Reflections in the Individual Final Reflective Report.

Category	Subcategory	Description	No. of Evidences	% of Total Participants (N = 108)
A. Overall Evaluation of ExperimentaCiências	A1. Positive Aspects	Aspects identified as positive in the training	91	84.3%
	A2. Less Positive Aspects	Aspects identified as less positive in the training, with suggestions for improvement	40	37.0%
B. Methodologies and Organization of the Training Course	B1. Methodologies Used	Teachers’ opinions on the methodologies used during the training	84	77.8%
	B2. Prior Training	Value attributed by teachers to the training provided before implementing the activities in the classroom	17	15.7%
	B3. Organization of the Training Sessions	Points highlighted regarding the organization of the training sessions	24	22.2%
C. Relevance of the Activities	C1. Training Practices vs. Teaching Practice	Relationship between practices applied during the training and teaching practice	35	32.4%
	C2. Classroom Experimentation	Impact of implementing experimental activities in the classroom	21	19.4%
	C3. Knowledge Consolidation and Improvement	Importance of the training for consolidating and improving knowledge in the field of experimental sciences	18	16.7%
	C4. Relevance and Suitability of the Content Covered	Teachers’ perceptions of the relevance and appropriateness of the content to their teaching practice	36	33.3%
D. Skills Developed	D1. Professional Enrichment	Contribution of the training to professional enrichment	37	34.3%
	D2. Pedagogical Practice	Impact on pedagogical practice	23	21.3%
	D3. Experimental Science Skills	Training and development of skills in the field of experimental science teaching	19	17.6%

, which outlines the categories and subcategories identified, the number of supporting references for each, and their percentages calculated on the total number of participants (N = 108) to ensure comparability. Less frequent subcategories were also retained due to their relevance for informing the design and improvement of future training programs.

For clarity, the results are organized into four thematic subsections, corresponding to the four categories of analysis.

Identifying the emerging categories and subcategories enabled an in-depth analysis of the training’s impact on teachers’ pedagogical practices. The evaluation of the training quality was framed within Category A. Overall Evaluation of ExperimentaCiências, highlighting the main positive and negative aspects pointed out by participants. The perception of the methodologies used corresponds to Category B. Methodologies and Organization of the Training Course, reflecting opinions on the pedagogical strategies and session structuring. The relevance of the training activities is represented in Category C. Relevance of the Activities, emphasizing the suitability of the proposed practices to teachers’ professional needs. Finally, the applicability of the acquired competencies in teaching practice falls under Category D. Skills Developed, revealing the training’s contribution to professional development and the improvement of teaching practices. This articulation between categories provided valuable information for the continuous enhancement of future professional training initiatives.

In presenting the data, an effort was made to give voice to as many participants as possible; therefore, excerpts are preferably drawn from different teachers’ records, and for convenience and readability, participants were coded sequentially as they appear in the text. It should be noted that this sequential coding does not correspond to the original identification system.

4.1. Overall Evaluation of ExperimentaCiências

Within the first category, A. Overall Evaluation of ExperimentaCiências, the subcategory A1. Positive Aspects shows that more than 80% of teachers recognized the training as an enriching experience, with three main aspects standing out in their reflections: the involvement and participation of stakeholders, the effectiveness of the methodologies used, and the relevance of the content addressed. More than half of the teachers emphasized the active and positive involvement of all participants, highlighting the importance of collaboration between teachers and trainers in the success of the program, as Teacher 33 (T33) noted, “this training action was extremely enriching and rewarding, as it allowed for the participation and involvement of everyone,” demonstrating a positive outcome of the collaborative dynamic created. The effectiveness of the adopted methodologies was mentioned by about 40% of teachers, who valued group work, the exchange of experiences, and the implementation of new pedagogical strategies, considering them appropriate for their training needs (as Teacher 82 (T82) stated, “it was a fruitful action for encompassing both theoretical and practical dimensions and for the work developed together with colleagues”), which demonstrates the relevance of balancing theoretical knowledge and practical application. The suitability of the content to teachers’ pedagogical practice was mentioned by more than 30% of participants, who recognized the positive contribution to their professional development and the improvement of teaching practices. As participants noted, “it was an added value for us teachers and also for the students. It allowed for the review of concepts and contact with different/innovative approaches that can be applied with students, aiming to serve as useful strategies to overcome difficulties and enhance the creation of more diverse and motivating work proposals, always keeping in mind academic success (T69).”

Although the training was widely praised, 6% of teachers highlighted certain limitations (subcategory A2. Less Positive Aspects), suggesting various improvements to the ExperimentaCiências program. The most mentioned point refers to the training schedule, noted by 24 teachers (22.2%), who considered the chosen times for the sessions inappropriate, particularly during school breaks or periods of increased bureaucratic workload in schools, which hindered active participation and the practical application of learning. Secondly, 8 teachers (7.4%) emphasized the need for greater teacher involvement in the organization and scheduling of activities directed at students, suggesting better alignment with specific school realities and contexts. Thirdly, 6 teachers (5.6%) mentioned the excessive size of training groups, which compromised the collaborative dynamic and hindered effective individual participation. Finally, criticisms were also raised concerning content redundancy and the limited level of challenge in the training, mentioned by 2 teachers (1.9%), who considered that some of the topics addressed were already known to teachers and students. These data reinforce the need for a program reformulation that includes a schedule more aligned with the school calendar, promotes greater collaboration with teachers in defining activities, and creates more favorable conditions for group work, such as reducing the number of trainees and enriching program content. As Teacher 42 (T42) noted, “I believe it could have been excellent if it had started in the first school term.” The intensity and accelerated pace of the training were also pointed out as challenges, making it difficult for participants to assimilate content, with one teacher (T103) stating, “the organization was a bit intensive.” Another limiting factor was the lack of material resources in some schools, which made it difficult to replicate experimental activities. As Teacher 2 (T2 observed, “with the materials available, everything is easier, as the school does not have many of the necessary materials,” highlighting the need for greater investment in equipment and materials for schools. The high number of trainees was initially considered an obstacle to managing activities, although this constraint was overcome throughout the sessions, as described, “the high number of trainees somewhat affected the first day of training” (T5). Finally, the group work methodology in large classes was also questioned, with teachers requesting suggestions for adjustments to allow for greater individual participation and involvement, stating that “the group work methodology in large classes should be reconsidered” (T51). Thus, although the training was generally valued, these aspects demonstrate the importance of better planning, methodological adaptation, and reinforcement of available resources to ensure a more meaningful contribution to teaching practice.

4.2. Methodologies and Organization of the Training Course

Regarding B. Methodologies and Organization of the Training Course, which reflects teachers’ opinions on the methodologies used during the training sessions and how they were organized, the analysis of reflections revealed three areas of emphasis: the adequacy of methodologies, the importance of prior training, and the structuring of the training sessions. The most mentioned subcategory was B1. Methodologies Used, cited by about 75% of teachers. The majority of teachers emphasized that the pedagogical strategies were well-structured, dynamic, and suited to the needs of teachers and students, facilitating learning and promoting more effective teaching. In the words of one respondent: “the methodologies used were quite appropriate, always with scientific language, but very accessible and clarifying… an exemplary job was done that allowed access to learning/experimentation without any constraints for all involved” (T76).

The emphasis on the articulation between theory and practice was one of the central points highlighted by teachers, ensuring that they had the opportunity to experiment and consolidate new methods before applying them in the classroom context. This aspect was mentioned by about 15% of teachers, who highlighted the relevance of training sessions before implementing activities with students (subcategory B2. Prior Training). Many teachers emphasized that this initial phase was essential to ensure a safer and more structured approach in the classroom, allowing teachers to feel more confident and prepared (“it was very motivating that the training was initially given to teachers and only then applied to students, allowing for greater group work experience and the use of necessary materials for carrying out activities” (T49)). This training model reinforced teachers’ autonomy and their ability to adapt to students’ needs, making implementation more effective.

Subcategory B3. Organization of the Training Sessions was mentioned by more than 20% of teachers, who praised the clarity in structuring sessions and the effectiveness in managing materials and content: “it was very well organized into two parts, theoretical and practical” (T41) or “there was curricular planning and an interconnection of content with daily life/environment in an integrative and globalizing approach to the organization and acquisition of scientific knowledge, aiming to stimulate interest in the study of sciences, create habits of using the scientific method in experimentation and observation of the surrounding environment using specific equipment and materials” (T98) Overall, teachers recognized the advantages of the methodologies used and the effectiveness of the training organization, highlighting its relevance for improving pedagogical practices. The combination of well-defined methodologies, structured prior training, and clear session organization was crucial for the training to be considered a significant contribution to their teaching practice.

4.3. Relevance of Activities

Regarding category C. Relevance of Activities, which concerns the relevance of the activities implemented during the ExperimentaCiências program for teachers’ professional development, the analysis of participating teachers’ reflections indicated that the program’s activities were largely considered interesting, relevant, and appropriate for their professional training. About 30% of participants emphasized the relationship between training practices and teaching practice (subcategory C1. Training Practices vs. Teaching Practice), considering that the training fostered the improvement of their teaching methodologies, as one participating teacher noted, “all the activities carried out in the training action proved to be quite important, as they met my needs as a teacher, allowing me to improve my teaching practice. They were also a means for me to review, update, and refine my knowledge with greater scientific rigor, making it a clear added value for students (T104)”.

Almost 20% of respondents also mentioned the development of specific competencies in experimental sciences, namely greater mastery of the stages of conducting experimental activities with their students, the ability to improvise, and the use of everyday materials (subcategory C2. Classroom Experimentation). In this regard, Teacher 39 (T39) highlighted: “the training reinforced my autonomy and confidence in implementing experimental activities” or “this program wakened interest, fostered engagement, and strengthened confidence to start or continue implementing experimental science teaching.”

More than 15% of teachers mentioned the importance of training for the Consolidation and Improvement of Knowledge in the area of experimental sciences (subcategory C3. Knowledge Consolidation and Improvement), “it served to deepen knowledge, both in terms of concepts and techniques, allowing for the experimentation of diverse and innovative learning experiences drawn from everyday contexts” (T68).

More than 30% of the teachers emphasized the relevance and appropriateness of the topics covered, particularly through the exploration of subjects that are often overlooked in the training sessions they had previously attended (subcategory C4. Relevance and Suitability of the Content Covered). As one participant stated, “all the activities carried out were highly relevant, as they were aligned with the topics addressed in the educational level targeted by the training. In terms of my specific area of expertise, I also found it very relevant, since most training opportunities tend to focus more on Portuguese and mathematics” (T14).

Teachers also reported that the training was meaningful and enabled them to reflect on their own knowledge gaps. One teacher (T46) noted that the training program “facilitated the learning of issues that are extremely important, but which I often neglect in practice due to lack of confidence or not knowing exactly how to carry out science activities with simple and accessible materials. I also realized that I need to deepen my knowledge in this field, as my initial training did not address these aspects of scientific experimentation.”

Another teacher (T15) commented, “the activities helped me understand alternative ways of introducing concepts. The training activities prioritized knowledge construction by students through discovery, rather than the traditional transmission of information that usually characterizes science teaching and learning.”

4.4. Skills Developed

Regarding category D. Skills Developed, the analysis of teachers’ reflections revealed various areas of professional growth. Over 30% of the participants highlighted an enhancement of their teaching practices (subcategory D1. Professional Enrichment), especially through the exchange of knowledge between teachers and students and the creation of a learning environment that supports hands-on activities, as illustrated in the following teacher testimonies: “the training gave me skills to foster critical thinking in students, encouraging them to question and learn through investigation and experimentation” (T72) and “this training made me a much more observant person, open to experimental teaching, and more reflective about both thinking and teaching practices. From this perspective, I became a teacher capable of guiding students to mobilize cultural, scientific, and technological knowledge to understand reality and address everyday situations and problems” (T19).

Around 40% of the teachers highlighted the positive impact on their pedagogical practice (subcategory D2. Pedagogical Practice), noting a better understanding of students’ difficulties and the need to adapt their approach to promote more active interaction. For example, “in practical work, the teacher can identify students’ difficulties and, by anticipating them, improve their teaching by designing differentiated activities that promote mutual interaction between students and teachers” (T24).

Almost 30% of the respondents also mentioned the development of specific skills in experimental sciences (subcategory D3. Experimental Science Skills), particularly a better command of the stages involved in conducting experimental activities, a more positive attitude, and the ability to use everyday materials effectively. As participants noted, “the training strengthened my autonomy and confidence in implementing experimental activities” (T38) and “with proper planning and everyday materials, we can adopt a positive and practical approach towards experimental work in science education” (T62).

In addition, a group of teachers highlighted that the training enabled them to deepen both their scientific understanding and procedural techniques, allowing for diverse and innovative learning experiences, such as, “these activities allowed for a deeper understanding of both concepts and techniques, making it possible to experiment with varied and innovative everyday learning situations” (T88) or “being a teacher is complex, and as such, it is essential to be prepared and equipped with a broad and deep set of knowledge in order to respond effectively to the demands of the educational context, particularly to the needs of each student. In this regard, all the knowledge I gained through this training has empowered me to develop new active learning scenarios” (T55).

The results indicate a predominantly positive perception of the ExperimentaCiências training program, which was valued for its scientific and pedagogical relevance, as well as its tangible impact on classroom practices. Teachers’ reflections emphasized the program’s role in professional development (Category D), particularly in fostering competencies in experimental science, promoting the use of active teaching methodologies, and enhancing the creation of dynamic and meaningful learning environments. Additionally, the perceived relevance of the training activities (Category C), the effectiveness of the methodologies employed, and the overall quality of the program’s organization (Category B) were highlighted as key elements contributing to its success. The general evaluation of the training (Category A) revealed a high level of satisfaction, with participants appreciating the integration of theory and practice, opportunities for collaboration, and alignment with their professional needs. Nonetheless, some limitations were noted, including content redundancy, inconvenient scheduling, and insufficient resources in some schools. These findings suggest the need for improvements in planning, thematic diversification, and logistical support to enhance the program’s future effectiveness and applicability.

The next section discusses the main results in light of the existing literature, establishing links with previous studies and framing the collected data within the broader context of teacher education in experimental sciences.

5. Discussion of the Results

5.1. How Do Primary-School Teachers Evaluate Their Participation in a Continuous Professional Development Program Focused on Experimental Science Education? (RQ1)

The analysis of the data collected regarding the ExperimentaCiências training program reveals significant contributions to the professional development of primary-school teachers. The results confirm the potential of continuous training to foster a more dynamic and interactive approach to science education but also expose limitations that merit further reflection. In particular, teachers valued the training but identified scheduling difficulties, group size, and material constraints as factors that reduced its overall impact. These weaknesses highlight that professional development initiatives, even when well-structured, must be critically examined in relation to the contexts in which they are implemented. This reinforces the need to debate how CPD programs can balance innovation with the constraints of teachers’ workload, school resources, and systemic challenges (Turner et al., 2019; Darling-Hammond & Oakes, 2021).

The information gathered from the individual final reflective reports provided valuable insights into the strengths of the training, as well as aspects that should inform the design of future training initiatives, ensuring they are more effective and aligned with participants’ needs. Similar results were found in other CPD interventions in science education, where teachers’ reflective practices and feedback loops were key to achieving sustainable improvements in classroom dynamics (Garet et al., 2001; van Driel et al., 2012). In sum, teachers’ overall evaluation was positive, although contextual constraints such as time and resources were perceived as barriers to its effectiveness. Beyond this overall evaluation (RQ1), it is equally relevant to explore how teachers described their concrete experiences in the program, offering insights into the mechanisms that underpin both the perceived strengths and the reported limitations (RQ2).

5.2. How Do Primary-School Teachers Report on Their Experiences in Such a Program? (RQ2)

As highlighted by Hafiz et al. (2021), Gümüş and Bellibaş (2021), and Terra et al. (2020), effective continuous professional development programs should be based on the integration of theory and practice, the use of active methodologies, and a strong connection to real teaching contexts. These principles were explicitly present in the ExperimentaCiências program, as acknowledged by the participating teachers. Specifically, they emphasized three key aspects: active participation (Category A1), effective methodologies (Category B1), and the relevance of content (Category C4). These findings align with research by Sims and Fletcher-Wood (2021), who stress that combining relevant content, experimental practices, and collaborative strategies enhances teacher professional development.

According to the participants, the training methodology adopted in the program provided a balance between theoretical and practical moments, along with opportunities to apply the acquired knowledge in classroom settings with the support of expert facilitators—an aspect also valued in the literature (Haug & Mork, 2021). The analysis of reflections indicates that the strategies were designed to address real and observed classroom needs, echoing McCullagh and Doherty’s (2020) view that effective in-service training should enable teachers to experiment, reflect, and adapt confidently to teaching science. Teachers also valued the inclusion of topics often absent from other training programs. This supports the recommendations of Turner et al. (2019) and Osborne and Dillon (2008), who argue for more diverse and in-depth approaches to science content in early years education.

Overall, teachers’ perspectives corroborate the literature, indicating that the program was grounded in solid pedagogical and scientific principles. While these accounts highlight effective methodologies and relevant content (RQ2), they also bring to light challenges and opportunities that expose structural tensions in continuous professional development, which are addressed in the following section (RQ3).

5.3. What Challenges and Opportunities Do Primary-School Teachers Report Regarding Their Participation in the Program, and How Do These Relate to the Gaps in Science Teacher Education Identified in the Literature? (RQ3)

Some areas for improvement were identified, particularly regarding content redundancy, as some training content overlapped with the existing Ministry of Education curriculum guidelines. This led to a lack of challenge perceived by some participants, along with the need for better scheduling and organization of the training sessions. Redistributing sessions throughout the school year may help to mitigate these issues.

Collaborative methodologies that fostered peer learning, widely used in the training, were highly valued by the teachers, and were considered dynamic and well-suited to their needs. These results are corroborated by research highlighting the value of active methodologies in teacher education, promoting the hands-on application of scientific concepts (Terra et al., 2020; Sims & Fletcher-Wood, 2021). Particularly valued was the integration of theory and practice, which increased teachers’ confidence in classroom implementation—a recognized success factor in CPD (Leshem & Trafford, 2006).

The relevance of the activities developed within the program was widely acknowledged by the teachers, particularly in terms of their contribution to improving classroom practices and enhancing interaction with students (subcategories C1. Training Practices vs. Teaching Practice and C4. Relevance and Suitability of the Content Covered). As Osborne and Dillon (2008) point out, training programs that promote critical reflection on teaching practices foster greater teacher engagement and motivation for science education. This was particularly evident in the teachers’ reflections, where they highlighted the direct applicability of the activities to the classroom context and their potential to actively engage students in meaningful scientific experiences. These findings are echoed in the work of Sims and Fletcher-Wood (2021) and Haug and Mork (2021), who emphasize the importance of training that is consistent with pedagogical practice and addresses real-world teaching challenges.

Furthermore, the training enabled teachers to consolidate scientific knowledge and develop more innovative didactic strategies, in line with the findings of Smith and Nadelson (2017), who identified the reinforcement of scientific knowledge as a key factor in increasing teachers’ self-efficacy in teaching science. This view is further supported by Terra et al. (2020) and Cochran-Smith et al. (2020), who advocate for training practices that combine scientific content with active pedagogical methodologies to promote deeper and more effective learning.

In this way, the challenges identified by teachers—time, resources, and content overlap—reflect structural gaps previously highlighted in the literature on science teacher education, while the opportunities they reported—confidence, enriched pedagogical practices, and stronger scientific knowledge—show how CPD can effectively address those gaps.

In conclusion, the data gathered in this study reinforce the idea that programs like ExperimentaCiências, by providing contextualized, participatory training experiences aligned with the real challenges of teaching, directly respond to the specialized literature’s recommendations for the continuous professional development of primary-school science teachers.

Integrating the three research questions (RQ1, RQ2, and RQ3), the discussion reveals a coherent picture of the ExperimentaCiências program as a valuable yet context-dependent CPD initiative. Teachers evaluated the program positively (RQ1) and emphasized the relevance of its methodologies and content (RQ2), highlighting how the integration of theory and practice enhanced their confidence and classroom practices. At the same time, the challenges reported—time, resources, and partial content redundancy—expose structural gaps in science teacher education (RQ3) that limit the full impact of CPD. Taken together, these findings suggest that the program contributes significantly to teachers’ professional growth, but also underline the need for systemic adjustments to ensure sustainability and broader applicability of such initiatives. In light of this balance between contributions and contextual constraints (RQ1–RQ3), it is essential to acknowledge the methodological and ethical limitations of the study in order to situate and critically assess the robustness of these conclusions (Section 5.4).

5.4. Limitations, Research Quality, and Ethical Considerations

This study has several limitations that must be acknowledged. First, the data were collected exclusively through Individual Final Reflective Reports, which, while providing rich qualitative insights, may also reflect subjective interpretations and self-reported biases. Second, the study focused on a single municipality in Portugal, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other contexts. Third, the lack of triangulation with other data-collection methods, such as classroom observations or interviews with students, restricts the depth of analysis. Future research should therefore consider combining multiple sources of evidence to achieve a more comprehensive understanding.

In terms of research quality, efforts were made to ensure rigor through systematic content analysis, independent coding by multiple researchers, and peer validation of categories. Nevertheless, the absence of inter-rater reliability measures may be considered a methodological limitation. Despite these constraints, the consistency of the findings with existing literature supports the credibility of the results.

Regarding ethical considerations, the study complied with ethical research standards. Participation was voluntary, informed consent was obtained from all teachers, and confidentiality of personal data was guaranteed. Although the training program itself was mandatory, engagement in the study and the provision of reflective reports for research purposes required explicit agreement by participants, thereby ensuring respect for participants’ autonomy and research integrity.

6. Conclusions

This study aimed to explore how primary-school teachers evaluate and perceive their participation in the ExperimentaCiências program—a continuing professional development initiative in Portugal focused on experimental science teaching. This program was distinctive for including in-class support provided by facilitators. The results indicate that the training was generally well received and appreciated by the participating teachers. The positive evaluation reflects a recognition of the program’s contribution to pedagogical innovation and the adoption of more dynamic and interactive teaching strategies, which are expected to enhance the quality of science education at this level. Teachers noted that their limited involvement in the planning and scheduling activities was an area for improvement, as active participation in content selection could increase the relevance of the training to their specific needs. Furthermore, the importance of continuous professional development and the direct classroom support offered by the program were emphasized as key to ensuring the successful implementation of experimental methodologies in real classroom settings.

This study is relevant to the field of primary teacher professional development, as it highlights the need for well-structured training programs that integrate theory and practice while promoting participatory and collaborative approaches. Moreover, the findings contribute to ongoing discussions about teacher professional growth and the implementation of experimental science methodologies in science education at the primary level. By identifying areas for improvement in the training process, this study provided a basis for revising similar professional development programs and for designing more effective educational policies aimed at promoting scientific literacy from the early years of schooling. In addition to these contributions, several avenues for future research emerge from this study.

Implications for Future Research

Building on these findings, future studies may expand the scope to other municipalities or educational contexts, allowing for a broader understanding of the transferability and scalability of CPD initiatives in experimental science teaching. Longitudinal studies would be valuable to examine the sustained impact of such programs on teachers’ professional identity, pedagogical practices, and student learning outcomes over time. In addition, mixed-methods approaches, combining teachers’ reflective narratives with classroom observations and student feedback, could provide a more comprehensive perspective on the effectiveness of professional development. Comparative studies exploring different CPD models (with and without in-class support, for example) could also help identify the specific mechanisms that most contribute to teachers’ confidence and pedagogical innovation. Finally, future research should investigate the adaptability of the teaching materials developed in this program across diverse school contexts, considering both curricular alignment and resource availability.